
Book J -S- 

GoiiyrightN'' 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




Bishop James M. Thobum 



FORWARD MISSION STUDY COURSES 

EDITEX) UNDER THE AUSPICES OF 
THE YOUNG PEOPLE'S MISSIONARY MOVEMENT 



THE CHRISTIAN 
CONQUEST OF INDIA 



By 
BISHOP JAMES M. THOBURN 

h orty-six Years a Missionary in India 



First Edition 
Seventy-five Thousand 



Young People's Missionary Movement 
New York - - - Toronto 






r 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Tvw) Contes Rw:eived 

AUG 23 1906 

ACovynglit entry 
tlASS ^ XXc, No. 

co/y b. 



Copyright, 1906 
Young People^s Missionary Movement 

New York 



TO THE YOUNG MEN AND YOUNG WOMEN 

OF CHRISTENDOM 

URGING THEM TO IMMEDIATE COOPERATION 

IN THE 

SOCIAL AND SPIRITUAL REGENERATION 

OF 

INDIA'S MILLIONS 



do this from a missionary view-point and in a 
form suitable for young readers, must inevitably 
prove to be a most perplexing task. 

It is hardly necessary to remark that no at- 
tempt has been made in the following pages to 
present to the reader a full and exhaustive ac- 
count of India and its people or of the mission- 
ary work, past or present, for which the country 
has become noted. The commission given to the 
writer did not imply an ideal of this kind. If 
the book proves useful in creating an intelligent 
interest in India and its teeming millions, and if, 
in addition to this, it enables the young people to 
realize that they are practically in touch v^ith 
these millions, it will accomplish the end which 
the writer had in view. 

J. M. Thoburn. 
Delaware, Ohio, May 26, 1906. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

Preface ^ v 

I. The Country i 

11. Invaders and Rulers 31 

III. The People 61 

IV. The Religions 91 

V. Christian Conquerors 131 

VI. Missionary Agencies 167 

VII. Problems 201 

VIII. Results 225 

Appendix A — Chronological Table 251 • 

Appendix B — Bibliography 255 

Appendix C — Rules for Pronunciation 265 

Appendix D — Glossary 266 

Appendix E — Statistics of Protestant Missions.... 271 

Appendix F — Area and Population 273 

Appendix G — Distribution of Christians by Race 

and Denomination 274 

Appendix H — Distribution of Population According 

to Religion and Education 275 

Appendix I — Statistics Concerning Some of the 

Principal Occupations 276 

Index 277 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Bishop James M. Thoburn Frontispiece 

Asafnagar Falls, Ganges Canal, Illustrating 

Irrigation Works page 12 

Plowing in the Punjab " 12 

Taj Mahal, Agra " 36 

Great Mosque, Delhi " 36 

Public Library, Allahabad " 49 

Victoria Railway Station, Bombay " 49 

Burmese Coast Village " 68 

Santal' Village Courtyard " 68 

Brahman Sub-judge and Family... " y^ 

Karen Family, Burma " 73 

Map Showing the Distribution of the Popula- 
tion According to Religions in the Prov- 
inces and States " 92 

Hindu Temple, Madura " 98 

Buddhist Temple, Buddh-Gaya " 98 

Map Showing the Principal Races and 

Religions " 108 

Four Indian Deities " 1 14 

Manager and Priests of Hindu Temple, 

Rameswaram " 117 

Buddhist Priest Instructing a Class of Boys.. " 117 

Fakirs " 121 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Oldest Syrian Church in India at Kottayam.. page 132* 

Henry Martyn's Pagoda " 132 

William Carey " 139 

Alexander Duff " 139 

Nagercoil Church " 172 

Vinton Memorial Church " 172 

College Hall of Madura Mission " 178' 

Forman Christian College, Lahore " 178 

Young Men's Christian Association Building, 

Madras " 191 

Isabella Thoburn College, Lucknovv " 191 

Extremes of the Caste System " 207 

Garo Polygamous Family " 207 

Founders of National Missionary Society of 

India " 241 

Political Map of India Showing Christian 

Mission Stations End 

Sketch Maps and Charts 

Railway Map " 18 

British Provinces and Native States " 47 

Languages of India " 63 

Missionary Development, Eastern India.... " I44 

Western and Southern India " 158 

Northern India " 160 



ID 



THE COUNTRY 



CHAPTER I 
THE COUNTRY 

IJN'DiA^ is one of the world's greatest empires. Area and 
In area it embraces 1,766,597 square miles/ It 
extends from east to west about 2,500 miles and 
from north to south nearly 2,000 miles. Its 
revenues are on a large scale, and in time of stress 
have proved as elastic as the average revenues of 
European nations under . similar conditions. Its 
army is large and always prepared for possible 
emergencies. If threatened by invasion, the 
Indian government, aided by the feudatory^ states, 
could meet the invaders on the frontier with an 

^When the first Aryan pioneers, traveling south- 
ward from the highlands of Central Asia, reached 
the river Indus, which was probably in flood at the 
time, they named it "Sindhus," or ocean, and very 
possibly mistook it for a part of the ocean itself. At 
a later period, other members of their race, coming 
from what is now called Persia, softened the sibilant 
initial into an h, and at a still later period the 
Greeks erased the first letter altogether and gave 
the river the illustrious name it still bears, the 
Indus. The original name still lives in the province 
of Sindh, and the people of that province are known 
as Sindhis. 

^Including Assam and Burma, which are integral 
parts of the empire. 

^Semi-independent native states governed by na- 
tive princes under the advice of a British Resident 
whom the viceroy stations at their courts. 
1 



The Christian Conquest of India 



army of 370,000 men. Its vast provinces are 
threaded with railway lines, and modern improve- 
ments of every kind keep pace with the general 
progress of the country. Legislative bodies share 
the responsibility of administration, both in the 
imperial and provincial governments. In all that 
pertains to industrial, civil, educational, and re- 
ligious progress, a steady advance can be noticed, 
and the future of this great empire becomes a 
subject of intense interest to every observing stu- 
dent, and especially to every Christian missionary. 
Population The population of the empire at the last census 
in 1901 was 294,361,056, equal to the whole of 
Europe, less Russia, and over three and one half 
times that of the United States. If account be 
taken of the normal increase of population, it 
may be accepted as reasonably certain that at the 
present time it exceeds 300,000,000, or nearly 
one fifth of the human race. India is a land of 
imperial proportions, and is entitled to fair con- 
sideration among the empires of the world. 

Ninety per cent, of the population is scattered 
in villages. The census counts 2,148 towns^ and 
728,605 villages."^ Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras 
are the only cities with more than 500,000 inhabi- 
tants; whereas in the United States there are six. 
In the entire empire there are only twenty-six 

^A town is incorporated, with a magistrate and 
petty court. 

^A village is a collection of houses, not incorpor- 
ated, with a headman. 



Cities and 
Villages 



The CouDtry ' 3 

cities of more than 100,000 inhabitants each. In 
the United States and Canada there are thirty- 
seven. About twenty per cent, of the population 
of the United States lives in cities exceeding 
100,000 inhabitants, while in India only two per 
cent, of the population is in cities of more than 
100,000 inhabitants. 

The average density of population for the Density of 
entire empire is 167 per square mile. The popula- ^°p"^^**°" 
tion of Belgium is three and one half times as 
dense, 589 per square mile, while that of Ontario 
is only ten persons per square mile. The British 
provinces are twice as populous as the native 
states, and the increase in the British provinces 
has been nearly five per cent,, while the native 
states have decreased 5.47 per cent, in population. 
The most populous regions are the Gangetic 
plain, the delta of Bengal, and the coast of the tri- 
angular southern plateau, while the most sparsely 
settled are the northwest portions and the coast of 
Burma. Arizona, Idaho, and Montana have less 
than two persons per square mile, while Baluchis- 
tan, the most thinly settled, has eleven. The delta 
of Bengal has 552, as compared with the 407 per 
square mile in Rhode Island. 

The geographical position of India can be seen Geographical 
by a glance at any map of Asia. On the north Position 
it seems to nestle under "the roof of the world," 
the name sometimes given to the vast region in 
central Asia which is buttressed by the Hima- 



4 The Christian Conquest of India 

layas^ and their spurs, and by other ranges on the 
north, east, and west. On the west its shores are 
washed by the waters of the Aral)ian Sea, and on 
the east it is bounded by the Chinese Empire, 
Anam, and Siam. On the northwest its historic 
boundary has been the Indus, although the politi- 
cal boundary has often been pushed southeast by 
invaders from central Asia, or again northwest 
by powerful rulers in India. Similar changes of 
boundary have taken place on the other side of 
India, but not so frequently, nor to so great an 
extent. At the present time the boundary of the 
empire embraces Assam and Burma on the east, 
and extends far enough beyond the Indus on the 
northwest to include Baluchistan, while Afghan- 
istan is held in the position of a subsidized state.^ 
The authority of the Indian government is para- 
mount up to the boundary line of Persia. 
Divisions Writers on India frequently divide the country 
into four sections: the first including the moun- 
tains of the Himalayan range; the second, the 
plains of northern India ; the third, the table-land 
of central and southern India; and the fourth, 
Burma. These first three divisions, however, are 
somewhat arbitrary, and do not convey a very 
clear idea of the actual configuration of the coun- 

^The word Himalaya means in Sanskrit "the abode 
of snow." 

^'The British government pays the Ameer of 
Afghanistan a subsidy of $600,000 per annum for his 
friendship. 



The Country 5 

tr}^ Immediately south of the snow-line of the 
Himalayas is a belt of lower mountains, with an 
average width of perhaps a hundred miles. At a 
distance of several hundred miles from the moun- 
tains the surface begins to rise, and long before it 
reaches the Vindhya mountains, a range which 
crosses India from east to west at about the 
middle of the country, the land has become an 
elevated plateau. Immediately south of this 
mountain range is a rich valley through which the 
^arbada Eiver flows westward, dividing the 
greater part of the country into two somewhat 
distinct sections. South of this river is another 
range of mountains called the Satpuras, which 
forms the northern boundary of a triangular pla- 
teau known as the Deccan, or South Country. 
This plateau has an average elevation of about 
two thousand feet, and is hemmed in on the west 
by a line of mountains running parallel with the 
ocean from northwest to southeast. A similar 
but somewhat lower range shuts in the plateau 
on the eastern side. These two ranges are called 
respectively the Eastern and Western Ghats, the 
former having an average height of about fifteen 
hundred feet, and the latter of about three thou- 
sand. Burma consists mainly of the valley and 
delta of the Irawadi, the Yoma ranges, a coast 
strip along the Bay of Bengal, and a wild hill 
region extending east and northeast of the Ira- 
wadi toward the Chinese and Tibet frontiers. 



6 The Christian Conquest of India 

Rivers The great rivers of India a«re chiefly those 
which have their sources in the Himalayas. It 
is a singular fact that these streams, except the 
Ganges, take their rise, not in India proper, but 
on the northern side of the Himalayas in Tibet. 
The Brahmaputra not only takes its rise to the 
northward of the mountains, but for the greater 
part of its course flows at a great elevation along 
a valley between the Himalayas proper and 
another snowy range which lies to the north in 
Tibet. Of all these rivers, the Indus, Ganges, and 
Brahmaputra take precedence. The Indus is a 
very large stream, but through nearly all its lower 
courses it flows through a desert, hence it is only 
along its upper course near the mountains, or in- 
deed among the mountains, that the tremendous 
volume of water it carries into the sea can be 
appreciated by a spectator. The Ganges has 
many tributaries ; one of them, indeed, the Gogra, 
is larger than the Ganges itself, and hence this 
river carries down an amazing volume of water to 
the sea. The Mississippi, when its banks are full, 
discharges 1,200,000 cubic feet of water per sec- 
ond ; the Saint Lawrence, 1,000,000 ; the Nile only 
400,000 ; the Ganges, 1,800,000. The Brahmapu- 
tra is unknown to India until it suddenly sweeps 
around the southeastern base of the Himalayas, 
and bursts forth into the Assam valley in all its 
strength. It was formerly considered larger than 
the Ganges, but it has been ascertained that in 



The Country 7 

the rainy season its discharge per second is only 
a little more than 500,000 cubic feet. This, how- 
ever, still gives it a prominent place among the 
great rivers of the world. Only two rivers of any 
size flow westward into the ocean — the> Narbada, 
spoken of above, and- the Tapti, which flows par- 
allel with it and but a short distance from it. The 
Irawadi breaks through the eastern Himalayas 
from Tibet and flows down through the center of 
Burma, receiving several affluents on its way. 
Three other rivers of considerable size, but not of 
great importance, discharge their waters into the 
Bay of Bengal — the Godavari, the Kistna, and the 
Mahanadi. 

The rivers of India are not well adapted to Adaptation of 
steamer traffic, as the force of their currents and Traffic 
the treacherous nature of the sand which they all 
bring down from the mountains make it difficult 
for steamers to ply for trade, as is so common on 
N'orth American rivers. An immense traffic, how- 
ever, is carried on by native boats, some of them 
of considerable size, although most of them are 
very small. On the Ganges, boats may be seen 
constantly, sometimes carried up by means of 
clumsy and often ragged sails, but very often 
slowly dragged by the boatman walking on shore 
and tugging with ropes. The downward passage, 
of course, is made more easily. The immense 
delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra — for the 
two rivers unite before reaching the sea — is made 



8 The Christian Conquest of India 

np of numberless canals and estuaries, on which 
a constant traffic is maintained. Some idea of 
the vast extent and activity of this river traffic 
can be formed from the statement that at the city 
of Patna on the Ganges, 61,000 boats have been 
registered as having passed up or down in the 
course of a single year. At Hugli, a town about 
twenty-five miles above Calcutta, 124,000 boats of 
all kinds and sizes passed in a year. The river- 
borne trade of the city of Calcutta amounts to 
more than $100,000,000 a year, and when it is 
remembered that nearly all of this is carried on 
in clumsy native boats, some idea can be formed 
not only of the number of these river crafts, but 
also of the vast number of boatmen employed in 
the service. 
Rivers as rpj^^ rivcrs of India are noted perhaps beyond 

Land-makers, 

Fertiiizers.and thosc of any othcr part of the world, unless it be 
Highways Africa, for the amount of silt which they carry 
down to the sea. If it be true that the Nile has 
made Egypt, it is equally true that the Ganges 
has made Bengal, while every river flowing into 
the sea has in like manner built up its own delta. 
The Ganges and Brahmaputra carry down more 
silt than the Indus, the Brahmaputra taking the 
lead in this respect. It has been estimated that 
it would take 24,000 steamships, each of 14,000 
tons burden, to carry the amount of deposit which 
is brought down by the Ganges alone during the 
four months of the rainy season. The mind fails 



The Country 9 

to realize how vast this yearly accumulation must 
be and yet it is not perceptibly noticed at the 
mouth of the river. It is true that thousands of 
acres are thrown up each year, not only in the 
delta, but at many points in the upper course of 
the stream ; but while new land is thus constantly 
forming, large slices of cultivated land are swept 
away from time to time, so that the poor native 
does not notice that the river makes much amends 
for the loss which it so often inflicts upon him. 
Nevertheless, the land is steadily gaining on the 
ocean ; and as the silt which is brought down is of 
the richest possible quality, those who cultivate 
near the river not only have their lands fertilized 
by the deposits left by the floods, but also at times 
secure new fields thrown up in the course of a 
few weeks, which furnish fruitful farms for years 
to come. I have myself seen wheat growing rich 
and green on fields where I have seen the water 
flowing fifty feet deep but six months before. The 
rivers also form cheap highways for carrying the 
produce of the country to the towns and seaports, 
and perform an invaluable function in furnishing 
the water for the irrigation schemes. 

Climate conditions in India are to a very great Monsoons 
extent dependent upon the winds known as "mon- 
soons" in southern Asia, but better known in 
other parts of the world as "trade winds." About 
six weeks after the sun crosses the equator in its 
northward course, a steady and sometimes strong 



10 The Christian Conquest of India 

wind sets in from the southwest and continues 
with slight interruptions for three or four 
months, and again when the sun recrosses the 
equator, similar conditions prevail, save that the 
direction is reversed; instead of coming from 
the southwest the prevailing winds are from 
the northeast. These winds are of the utmost 
importance to India. The heated air rising from 
the ocean carries with it a large measure of mois- 
ture, and when it reaches the somewhat cooler 
atmosphere farther from the equator this mois- 
ture is condensed and precipitated as rain upon 
the parched and thirsty land, a process as beauti- 
ful as it is wonderful. 
Destructive- But for tlicse mousoous India would speedily 
become an uninhabitable waste, and yet these 
messengers of blessing are sometimes attended by 
great disasters, and followed by suffering in vari- 
ous forms. The typhoon of the coast of China, the 
cyclone of India, and the hurricane of the West 
Indies are practically one and the same in origin, 
character, and destructive effect. Some twenty 
years ago a strong and persistent wind drove the 
watei in one of the mouths of the Brahmaputra 
backward for many hours until it stood above its 
normal level. When a sudden change of the wind 
released this mighty mass, and the swollen flood 
swept out to sea, it buried a large island with its 
hundred thousand beneath its waves. It was sub- 
stantially the destruction of Pharaoh^s host re- 



soons 



The Country 11 

peated before the eyes of the modern world. The 
Bakarjang cyclone of 1876 drove huge waves over 
the large islands, and in a few hours engulfed 
150,000 acres of land, and destroyed 2,000,000 
souls. At times large ships have been swept in- 
land upon the crest of great waves and deposited 
on the shore, sometimes at a distance of several 
miles from the sea. 

The average annual rainfall varies greatly in Rainfall 
the different parts of India. At the stations on 
the outer ranges of the Himalayas it reaches a 
point which in North America would be consid- 
ered very excessive, ranging from 91 inches at 
Naini Tal to 120 inches at Darjiling. In some 
parts of the great valley of the Brahmaputra the 
rainfall is the heaviest known in the world. At 
Cherra Punji, a station in Assam, the average 
annual rainfall is no less than 523 inches, and in 
1861 it actually rose to 805 inches. This, how- 
ever, is exceptional. In Baluchistan the normal 
mean rainfall is 8.7 inches, and on the Burma 
coast 152.9 inches. In general, rain is most abun- 
dant on the coast of Burma, along the Western 
Ghats, and the Brahmaputra valley, and in the 
eastern sections of the sub-Himalayas. The dryest 
portions are northwestern India, Gujarat, and the 
Deccan. As a basis of comparison it may be noted 
that the rainfall in the state of New York in 1905 
was a little more than 45 inches, in Ohio slightly 
less than 45 inches, in California about 25 inches, 



12 The Christian Conquest of India 

and Arizona 20 inches. As a rule there is no 
want of moisture in India, as the average rain- 
fall is considerably in excess of the rainfall in 
North America, but instead of being spread all 
over the year it is confined to a few months. 
Irrigation The cauals of British India are far more widely 
extended and also more useful than is commonly 
supposed. At a time when so much attention is 
t being given to the irrigation projects in the arid 
sections of the United States, the reader will be 
interested to know that the British government 
has been the chief modern pioneer in this line of 
work. The canals in India have an aggregate 
length of "main line'' of 14,438 miles, with 29,- 
174 miles of smaller distributing channels. More 
than 44,000,000 acres of land are irrigated by 
canals, mainly in Madras, the Punjab, United 
Provinces, and Bengal, and the work of extending 
the system is going on vigorously. The govern- 
ment has already expended over $150,000,000 in 
constructing these canals, employing at times a 
large number of famine laborers who would prob- 
ably have starved. This great work is largely due 
to a distinguished engineer, the late Sir A. Cot- 
ton, who adopted the theory that God sends as 
much rain as is needed, but would have man care 
for the gift which his bounty provides. 
Drought An immense amount of suffering and many 
deaths are caused by drought, which frequently 
occurs in the sand portions of the Punjab, large 




Asafnagar Falls, Ganges Canal, Illustrating Irrigation Works 




Plowing in the Punjab 



The Country 13 

sections of the Deccan, and other parts of the em- 
pire, where the rainfall is not abundant. How- 
ever, the shortage of rain will become less formid- 
able as the government extends its system of irri- 
gation. During the first eighty years of the nine- 
teenth century, 18,000,000 people perished of 
famine. In 1877, 5,000,000 of the people of 
southern India starved to death.^ Cholera is also 
frequently a concomitant of the terrible famine, 
and various sorts of fever and other sickness 
usually foUovv^. The bubonic plague, largely re- 
sulting from insufficient food, caused the 
death of nearly 360,000 persons between 1896 and 
1900. 

For lonff a^es India has been famed for her Gold, silver, 

, . and Diamonds 

treasures of gold, silver, and jewels, but as a mat- 
ter of fact, her mines are few in number and not 
very productive. The historic treasures of India 
have been to a great extent the product of military 
plunder. In fact, the same remark might be 
made with regard to public wealth in all Asiatic 
lands from the days of Croesus to the present 
time. The immense treasures of which we 
read in history and story are partly fabulous 
and partly accounted for by the fact that success- 
ive conquerors brought them from other lands to 
India. Diamond mines are still worked in south- 
ern India, but the product is not large. European 
skill and energy have given an impetus to gold 
^Lillj^ India and its Problems, 287. 



14 The Christian Conquest of India 

mining in Mysore, but the success achieved has 
been only fairly satisfactory. Last census imports 
of treasures were two and one half times exports. 

Coal Coal was never sought for until its necessity 
began to be felt a few years ago. As the various 
railway lines have been extended into different 
parts of the country, coal has been discovered here 
and there, and its production has steadily in- 
creased, until in 1903 it reached more than seven 
million tons. In India, as in all lands, this spe- 
cies of "black diamond" is found to be of infi- 
nitely greater value than any deposit of real 
diamonds. It is now used in large quantities by 
all the manufacturing establishments in the cities, 
and is also in demand in seaport towns because of 
the increasing number of steamers which frequent 
the Indian shores. 

Rice In Europe and America the impression prevails 
very generally that the people of India subsist 
almost wholly upon rice, but this is a great mis- 
take, as it is a staple food for only one third of 
the population. Eice is produced in very large 
quantities, and is a common article of diet along 
the seashore and river bottoms, especially in 
Burma, but the greater part of India consists of 
uplands which are not adapted to the production 
of rice. Eice is cultivated in the uplands wherever 
favorable conditions can be found, and people of 
all races are not only willing, but eager to obtain 
it whenever possible. 



The Country 15 

Taking the empire of India as a whole, the Miiiet 
most common article of diet will be found to con- 
sist of the different kinds of millet, and of the 
grains belonging to the pea family. The term 
millet includes a large variety of grains. A mis- 
sionary received a small package of sorghum seed 
from the United States, and sowed it in his gar- 
den to see if it would mature successfully in the 
strange soil and climate of an Eastern land. The 
seed germinated and developed precisely as it 
would have done in Kansas, but the natives 
watched the experiment with extreme interest, 
and recognizing the plant as a species of their 
own field crop, stole a part of the seed for their 
own use and in a few years the improved quality 
of their millet began to attract attention. A 
dozen varieties of this grain may now be seen in 
northern India. Other crops belonging to the pea 
family also yield bountiful harvests. 

India is justly famed for her variety of tropical Fruits 
fruits. The mango is to the people of India what 
the apple is to the American people. It grows 
everywhere, and often large mango trees line both 
sides of a public road, or occupy waste ground 
near the villages, and being free to the poor, these 
become a great boon during the fruitage season. 
The banana of many varieties is also found in all 
parts of the land, and its fruit is usually cheap. 
Oranges of fine quality, guavas of many varieties, 
pineapples, custard apples, loquats, lemons, and 



Forests 



16 The Christian Conquest of India 

limes of many kinds, and in the extreme south, 
breadfruit, jack-fruit, and the durian — the last 
three being members of a common family — all 
claim a place in the list of Indian fruits. 

The forest products of India include almost 
everything which grows in the tropical world. 
The teak of Burma and southern India has become 
known in all parts of the world. Among the 
lower ranges of the Himalayas, the cedar of Leba- 
non maintains the renown of that illustrious mon- 
arch of mountain forests, while the fir, spruce, and 
other members of the coniferous family are also 
found, although in the lapse of many centuries, 
since the mountains became inhabited, most of 
them have perished. ^^Immense elms capable of 
seating six hundred persons in their shade," ^ and 
valuable trees of different kinds are found 
throughout the empire. A forest reserve of sixty- 
seven million acres is carefully protected by the 
Indian government. 
Banyan Trees nj^^^Q Indian banyan tree has become noted 
throughout the world. Some of these trees have 
been well cared for, and in the course of a century 
or more they have spread in all directions until a 
single tree is made to resemble a small forest. A 
tourist visiting Calcutta a few years ago was taken 
to the Botanical Gardens to see a famous banyan 
tree which had been carefully protected for years, 
and even assisted in its natural effort to support 
^Beach, The Cross in the Land of the Trident, 12. 



I 



The Country 17 

its spreading branches by stems thrown down from 
above. When the tree was pointed out to this 
stranger, as he was approaching it, he was utterly 
unable to realize that the tiny forest before him 
consisted of a single tree, and asked in great sim- 
plicity, "Which one of these trees is the banyan?^' 

India has some extensive deserts in the north- cultivable 
east, some arid wastes and malarious swamps in ^^^^ 
other regions, but, taken as a whole, it is a land 
of great fertility. Of the 737,703,322 acres of 
land, nearly one third is poorly cultivated, and. 
about 140,000,000 cultivable acres are unused. 
Land which has been cultivated for thirty centu- 
ries, or possibly longer, yields its yearly crop boun- 
teously without deep plowing and without the help 
of fertilizers. 

India fed and cared for her own vast population Exports 
and sent to foreign countries in 1903-4, $28,000,- ^" sports 
000 of tea, $38,000,000 of wheat and flour, $63,- 
000,000 of rice, $70,000,000 of raw and manufac- 
tured jute, $115,000,000 of raw and manufac- 
tured cotton, besides large quantities of hides, 
indigo, coffee, lumber, and other products. Her 
exports during 1903-4, totaling nearly $500,000,- 
000, and her imports approximating $280,000,000 
entitle her to a prominent place among the first 
commercial nations of the world. 

The first railroad in India was completed in Railroads 
1853, connecting Bombay and Thana, a distance 
of three miles. During the mutiny of 1857-8 



18 The Christian Conquest of India 



the government was badly crippled by a lack of 
facilities for transporting troops. After this 
disastrous experience. Lord Dalhousie influenced 
the government to connect by rail the large cities 



TIBET 




CH.MORCAN 



ColofTibol^^ 1 

ceylon\J^ 



RAILWAY MAP 



Cities named are V»sc having SOiOOO 

populaHon 
Railway lines connecting diief dties___,__^ 
Oihcr railway llhea ..__ 



and military stations. Through Lord Mayo and 
others the railroad system has been rapidly ex- 
tended. In 1878 there were 8,000 miles in opera- 
tion; in 1895, 16,000 miles. A glance at the rail- 
way map above shows the empire connected by 



The Country 19 

nearly 27,000 miles, placing India fifth among the 
powers of the world in railroad mileage, and 
employing over 400,000 natives. 

In a region so large as India it could not be seasons 
expected that the climate would be uniform, and 
yet it presents certain features which may db 
spoken of as peculiarly Indian. Throughout 
nearly the whole empire the year may be divided 
into three sections : cold, hot, and wet. 

The cold season begins in northern India about coid season 
the first of October. At Calcutta and Bombay it 
is hardly recognized as having begun before Ko- 
vember. With the exception of about a week near 
the close of December, it seldom rains during this 
season. In all northern India, from October to 
March, the weather is delightful, with sky 
almost cloudless. People can make their ar- 
rangements months in advance without fear of 
having them disturbed by bad weather. At points 
as far south as Lucknow or Benares, a white frost 
sometimes forms in late December or early Janu- 
ary, and a very thin coating of ice may sometimes 
be seen on the water if it is exposed in a shallow 
vessel and in a damp place. In Calcutta and Bom- 
bay frost is never seen. Houses are never built 
with chimneys, and fire is rarely introduced into 
any dwelling. In southern India the thermome- 
ter rarely falls below sixty-five degrees, but in 
northern India, during the three or four months 
of the cold season, a fire in the evening is found 
to be very comfortable. 



20 The Christian Conquest of India 

Hot Season As the end of the cold season approaches, a 
steady and sometimes strong west wind begips to 
blow, and the signs of the approaching hot season 
become unmistakable. The evenings and nights 
still continue cool even as late as March. In Cal- 
cutta and Bombay, however, it is usually quite 
warm before the middle of March. By the month 
of April the west wind has become a hot wind, 
and with the exception of fruit and forest trees, 
vegetation has wholly disappeared; not a blade of 
grass is to be seen ; daily the hot west wind blows 
with increasing intensity and people take refuge 
from it as they do from cold in more northern 
climes. The month of June is a trying one on 
account of the extreme heat, especially in north- 
ern India. 
Common It is a commou mistake in the West to suppose 
Mistake ^j^^^ ^^^q farther north one goes in India the 
cooler will be the weather; and young mission- 
aries very frequently make the mistake of asking 
for a station in northern India on the grounds 
that they cannot very well endure the heat, and do 
not wish to expose themselves to the hot winds of 
southern India and thus risk their health. The 
condition is exactly the opposite. The nearer one 
is to the equator the cooler it seems. At Eangoon 
it is found to be much hotter than at Singapore, 
which is only ninety miles from the equator; in 
Calcutta again it is much warmer than in Ean- 
goon, while as we pass northward the thermometer 



The Country 21 

rises in the hot months until it stands at Delhi 
and Lahore, in the far north, at a figure that is 
never reached in Calcutta and Bombay. 

While this hot wind blows during the summer^ Care of Keaith 
missionaries and Europeans in general avoid expo- 
sure to it as much as possible, seldom venturing out 
of doors after ten or eleven o'clock in the morning, 
or before four or five in the afternoon. It should 
be said, however, that the air is moderately pure at 
this season, and that it is only the excessive heat 
and the effect of the sun's rays which the foreigner 
must avoid. Malarious influences of all kinds are 
held in suspense during this season, and persons 
who give proper attention to the necessary condi- 
tions often remark that they really enjoy better 
health at this season than at any other time of the 
year. 

By the month of June the heat has become wet season 
intense. About this time, to use the phrase com- 
monly adopted in India, the "monsoon bursts." 
All over the empire there is intense anxiety to 
hear of the approach of the rains. About the end 
of June — sometimes a little earlier — the telegraph 
announces that the monsoon has burst on the 
western coast of Ceylon and along the extreme 
southwestern coast of India. Each day the rains 
creep northward. In a week or so they have 
reached Bombay, and by the twentieth of June 
they have usually extended throughout India. A 
marked change of temperature follows their ad- 



22 The Christian Conquest of India 

vent. The thermometer will perhaps fall fifteen 
to twenty degrees at the first downpour. 
Nature's The whole landscape, which has been utterly des- 

Awakening olate for three months, and which at last looks as 
though it had been sprinkled over with ashes, be- 
comes in a few days clothed in the richest green. 
Vegetation of every kind springs into wonderful 
activity ; the birds seem filled with new life ; multi- 
tudes of frogs come from no one knows where and 
revel in every pond and puddle to be seen in the 
level fields. During the next three or four months 
India is a beautiful country, clothed everywhere in 
the richest green and filled with every form of ac- 
tive and joyous life. The rain does not fall con- 
stantly, but one or more showers may be expected 
every day. The evenings and mornings are de- 
lightful, and in no land do the clouds present a 
grander spectacle than when banked up against 
the western sky at sunset, with great billowy edges 
upturned toward the setting sun and glowing in the 
rich light with which its evening rays bathe a trop- 
ical landscape. Xot everyone, however, enjoys this 
season. The air if cooler is more sultry, and the 
houses become damp and to some people uncom- 
fortable. Cholera, fever, and other diseases are 
apt to be more prevalent than w^hen the heat is 
greatest, i^s in northern climes the cold is little 
felt and inflicts but little injury on invalids when 
it is dry, so in India the excessive heat is not felt 
as an affliction so long as the air is perfectly dry. 



The Country 23 

The climate of India is not so great a foe to Health 
life and health as is generally supposed. If it 
must be conceded that Bengal is the birthplace of 
Asiatic cholera, it can be said in reply that India 
has never produced a case of yellow fever. If the 
plague infests the cities and even spreads among 
the remote villages, it should be remembered that 
it found its way to India from China, and that it 
once devastated London more terribly than it has 
ever afflicted any city in India. 

Very much of the ill health of Europeans in The 
India can be traced to their defiance of the sim- 
plest laws of health, by persistently following a 
course of life in the tropics which would be barely 
within the limits of safety in the higher latitudes 
of Europe and America. The feverish haste which 
attends the lives of most persons in the Occidental 
world cannot be transferred to the quiet and 
calm environments of life in India or in the East 
generally, but the average American and Euro- 
pean can live his three score years and ten in 
India and enjoy health and cheerful spirits if he 
adapts himself to his environment. The writer 
of these lines, after a personal experience of forty- 
six years, is glad to put on record the testimony 
that when God called him to India he gave him 
"a goodly heritage,'' and many retired "old In- 
dians" in Great Britain and other parts of Europe 
often speak longingly of the Eastern home in 
which the years of their active life have been spent. 



24 The Christian Conquest of India 

QUESTIONS OF STUDY 
These questions have a twofold purpose: First, to 
assist the average student, partly in reviewing the 
most important topics of the chapter and partly in 
thinking out further conclusions. Those marked * 
may serve as a basis for more extended thought and 
discussion. It is not to be expected that these should 
be answered without careful reflection. Second, to 
assist leaders of mission study classes in bringing out 
the points of the lesson. Leaders should rarely use 
the entire list in a single meeting, but should freely 
select, modify, and supplement. In addition to the 
use of these questions, they should not fail to obtain 
from the secretaries of their denominational mis- 
sionary boards helps containing full suggestions for 
the conduct of each session of the class. 

QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER I 
Aim: To Realize the Claim that India as a Land 

Presents foe Cheistian Conquest 
I . . . Size of the country. 

1. How does India compare in size with the United 

States and with Great Britain? 

2. How do its extreme distances compare with 

distances in the United States? 

3. What American cities measure the distance of 

Mandalay from Quetta? Madras from Peshaw- 
ar? Calcutta from Lahore? Bombay from 
Rangoon? 
II. . .Population. 

4. As the sun makes his daily rounds what are the 

three greatest masses of population he sees on 
the earth's surface? 

5. How does India compare in size and population 

with that part of the United States lying west 
of the Mississippi River? (excluding Alaska.) 



The Country 25 

6. How does the population of India compare with 

that of the entire United States? With that 
of Africa? With that of Canada? 

7. What part of the world's total population is that 

of India? 

8. What effect will it have on evangelization that 

such a large percentage of the people live in 
villages? 

III. . .Climate. 

9. In what part of India should you prefer to live 

for the entire year? Why? 

10. What months should you choose for a visit to 

India? 

11. What part of America at what season would 
most remind you of the plains of the upper 
Ganges basin on June the first? on July the 
first? 

12. What parts of India should you most like to 
visit on account of the scenery, and why? 

lY .. .India's Value to England. 

13. Why does England guard India so jealously 
against Russia? 

14. Which of the principal products of India can- 
not be raised in Great Britain? 

15. What sorts of British goods are especially 
needed in India? 

16. How does India rank among the purchasers of 
British goods? (Consult the Statesman's Year- 
Book or similar authority). 

17. Why is trade between nations of different zones 

apt to be more profitable than that between 
nations of the same zone? 

18. Try to estimate what it costs England to main- 

tain control of India? What are the motives 
for this expenditure? 



36 The Christian Conquest of India 

Y... Value of England to India. 

19.* What has England done to increase the eco- 
nomic resources of India? 

20. How does India compare in modern improve- 
ments with Persia or Siam? 

21.* How do these improvements aid in mitigating 
the effects of famine? 

22. Do you consider English occupation on the 
whole an economic blessing to India or not? 

VI. . .India's Claim on the Church. 

23. What is the claim of India on the Christian 
Church in view of its size and resources? 

24. What is its claim in view of its vast popula- 
tion? 

25. Does the present condition of these multitudes 

increase or decrease the claim? 
26.* Try to estimate the appeal that India makes 
to the eye of God as he looks down upon the 
world? 

27. Does trade constitute the greatest opportunity 
that India presents to the Christian world? 

28. With what relative zeal do we advance to eco- 

nomic and Christian conquest? 

29. What of all things that we have to give India 

does she most need? 

30.* What is our responsibility for offering her the 
best things? 

31. Sum up the claims of India as a land for Chris- 
tian conquest? 

References for Advanced Study. — Chapter I 
I . . . Clim,ate. 

Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, li-19. 
Chamberlain: The Cobra's Den, XV. 
Compton: Indian Life in Town and Country, 7, 
184, 263. 



The Country 27 

I. . .Climate — (Continued). 

GrifSn: India and Daily Life in Bengal, VI. 
Stewart: Life and Work in India, IV. 

II. . .Resources. 

Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 12-15. 
Elphinstone: History of India, 5-10. 
Griflfin: India and Daily Life in Bengal, V. 
Rowe: Every-day Life in India, XXIV, XXV. 

III. . .Famines. 

Curtis: Modern India, XX. 

Denning: Mosaics from India, XI. 

Hunter: Brief History of the Indian Peoples, 124, 

231, 233, 242. 
Lilly: India and Its Problems, 286-288. 
Rowe: Every-day Life in India, XXXVII. 
Scott: In Famine Land, I, II, III, IV, VI. 

IV. . .Burma. 

Cochrane: Among the Burmans, VII. 
Hall: A People at School, I. 
Sangermano: The Burmese Empire, VII. 
Smith: Ten Years in Burma, IV. 
Thoburn: India and Malaysia, XXXIV. ' 



INVADERS AND RULERS 



CHAPTEE II 
INVADERS AjN'D RULERS. 

Nowhere are the words, "the gorgeous East/' a Land ot 
used with such complete fitness as when applied chlrai^ 
to India. It is the one land of the Orient that is 
invested with ever-changing interest and romantic 
charm at each stage of its development. . The vision 
of Heine in his day-dream is almost literally true : 
'^'And I saw the blue, holy Ganges, the eternally 
radiant Himalayas, the gigantic banyan forests, 
with their wide leafy avenues, in which the 
clever elephants and the white robed pilgrims 
peacefully wander; strange dreamy flowers gazed 
at me with mysterious meaning; golden wondrous 
birds burst into glad wild song." India stiU, to use 
Milton's phrase, 

"with richest hand, 
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold," 

while about these native courts, and the great cities 
and structures, lingers a strange poetic halo from 
the past. The peninsula has undergone so many 
changes in its long history, so many invaders have 
entered its territory, so many thrones have arisen 
and passed away, that the land ever}nvhere is full 

31 



Two 
Stone Ages 



33 The Christian Conquest of India 

of historic associations and the memories of de- 
parted greatness. 

The Earliest Invaders 

In the early dawn of Indian life, as disclosed 
by modern research, there were two stone ages, one 
having agate knives and rough flint weapons, such 
as are found in the Narbada valley ; the succeeding 
one using polished flint axes and other deftly 
wrought implements of stone, like those found in 
northern Europe. 
pre-Aryan j^ appears that peoples representing the early 
metal age followed those of the stone ages and 
that they were invaders belonging chiefly to two 
stocks. There were, first, the Tibeto-Burman tribes 
entering India from the northeast and clinging to 
the skirts of the Himalayas ; and second, the Dra- 
vido-Munda, who seem to have made their way 
into the Punjab by the northwestern passes. The 
rude stone circles erected by these people have been 
discovered, also upright slabs and mounds beneath 
which they buried their dead. The remains in 
these tombs show that they knew how to make 
round pots of hard thin earthernware, that they 
fought with iron weapons, and wore ornaments of 
silver and gold.^ 

^Hunter, A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, 
40, 49. 



Invaders and Enlers 33 

The Coming of the Aryans 

The people holding central place in Indians his- The Aryan 
torical development is the Aryan. From their ^"'^*^^°° 
ancestral home in Asia this great race sent streams 
of migration westward into Europe. Another 
stream going southeastward into India, began in 
the Punjab the conquest of the original inhabi- 
tants and became eventually the predominant ele- 
ment in the country^s population and history. The 
word "Aryan" means noble, and the term applied 
to the language of the Aryans is "Sanskrit" or 
"polished," both names suggestive of the high 
qualities of this richly endowed race. Fair com- 
plexioned, noble-featured, alert and forceful in 
mind, aggressive in spirit, having a wealth of reli- 
gious ideas and ceremonies, and devoted to the 
service of their "bright gods," the Aryan invaders 
gradually moved forward in their appropriation 
of all the more desirable regions of India. The 
aboriginal peoples, whom the Aryans found in pos- 
session of the fertile river valleys and plains, were 
overcome in war, enslaved, or made a servile class, 
or driven into the fastnesses of the hills, moun- 
tains, and deserts. As time went on there was, in 
large sections of the land, a gradual intermarriage 
and blending of the Aryan and the non-Aryan 
populations. 

The Aryans probably invaded India about two Three Historic 
thousand years before the Christian era.^ From ^^"°*^^ 

Trazer, British Rule in India, 51. 



34 The Christian Conquest of India 

1400 to 1000 B. C, they spread from the Punjab 
southeastward into the Ganges valley as far as 
Benares and Behar, establishing kingdoms as they 
went/ From 1000 to 320 B. C, they advanced 
from the valley of the Ganges and extended their 
sway widely, introducing Hindu civilization and 
founding Hindu kingdoms, even to the southern- 
most limits of India."" 



Alexander's 
Invasion 



Close ot 
Greek Period 



Greelc and Scythian Incursions 

Alexander the Great invaded northwestern In- 
dia in 327 B. C. In his principal battle, near the 
Jehlam River, he defeated Porus, a local monarch, 
who afterward became his friend. The Greeks 
were able to penetrate the country only as far ag 
Amritsar, and recognizing that any defeat would 
be fatal, they turned back and descended the Jeh- 
lam and Indus to the sea. A part of the army 
returned homeward in boats, and Alexander led 
the rest of his forces back through great hardships 
to Susa. The important results of his expedition 
were the alliances he made, the cities he founded, 
and the Greek garrisons he planted. 

After Alexander's death, Bactria and the cities 

of India, in which Greek dominion was intact, fell 

to Seleukos Nikator, the founder of the Syrian 

monarchy; and as Chandra Gupta had built up a 

considerable empire in northern India, Seleukos 

^Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 34. 
^Dutt, Ancient India, 60, 61. 



Invaders and Eulers 35 

gave to him his daughter in marriage, and sold to 
him the Greek possessions in India. There were 
further incursions into the Indian peninsula from 
Greek Bactria., but these ceased about 200 B. C. 

About 100 B. C, inroads into India were made The Scythians 
by a people supposed to be the Scythians, from a 
region east of the old ancestral home of the Aryan 
race. These Scythic invasions went on for a 
period, extending to 500 A. D., but their greatest 
aggressions were made in the century preceding 
the birth of Christ. Their most notable king was 
Kanishka, who called the Fourth Buddhist Coun- 
cil about 40 A. D., and who held his court in 
Kashmir. 

Mohammedan Rulers 

Mohammed was born in 570 A. D., created a isiam's Efforts 
conquering religion, and died in 632 A. D. Within ^°'' *^* ^^^"^ 
a hundred years after his death the armies of Islam 
had made the crescent supreme throughout Asia, 
west of the Hindu Kush Mountains. From the 
first this new power seems to have fixed eager eyes 
upon the rich domain of India, and some early 
assaults were made, but Islam had to consoli- 
date itself during three more centuries before it 
grew strong enough to grasp the prize. Even then 
India did not fall before the Mohammedans at 
once, for there were a series of invasions and par- 
tial conquests during nearly eight centuries, and 



36 



The Christian Conquest of India 



at no time was Islam master of the whole of India. 
The period of the Mohammedan rule is calculated 
as extending from 1001 to 1761 A. D. The rulers 
of these seven and a half centuries were of eight 
houses or dynasties. The most famous of them 
belonged to the last dynasty, that of the house of 
Timur. 
The Moguls This powerful line of conquerors were Mongols, 
or Moguls, and in 1398 Timur, or Tamerlane, led 
through the Afghan passes the united hordes of 
Tartary, defeated the Tughlak King Mahmud 
under the walls of Delhi, committed great mas- 
sacres in that capital and Meerut, and retired to 
his own capital, Samarkand, with immense booty. 
Though he had proclaimed himself emperor at 
Delhi, the title lapsed till his grandson Baber 
revived it, regained possession of Delhi and other 
cities of India, and was the first to bear the famous 
title, the Great Mogul. 

The grandson of Baber, Akbar the Great, whose 
reign extended from 1556 to 1605 A. D., is 
regarded as the greatest sovereign India ever had, 
as well as the most illustrious Asiatic monarch of 
modem times.^ He subdued all India north of the 
Yindhya Mountains and organized it into an 
empire. He conciliated the Hindu tributary princes 
by placing them side by side with the Mogul nobles, 
thus checking at the same time the power of the 
latter. He carried out a great system of land set- 
^Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 63. 



Akbar 
the Great 




Taj Mahal, Agra 




Great Mosque, Delhi 



Invaders and Eulers 37 

tlement as a basis of taxation, the outlines of which 
have continued down to the present. It is interest- 
ing to note that Akbar^s tax was about three times 
the amount that the British collect/ He respected 
the laws of the Hindus, but put down their inhu- 
mane rites, such as trial by ordeal, animal sacri- 
fices, and early child marriages. "He legalized the 
remarriage of Hindu widows but he failed to abol- 
ish widow-burning on the husband^s funeral pyre, 
although he took steps to ensure that the act was 
a voluntary one."^ In religious view he was broad 
and tolerant. 

Among the successors of Akbar, Shah Jehan and shah jehan 
Aurungzeb are also noted for the splendor and 
success of their reigns. If Akbar has to his archi- 
tectural credit the massive and imposing red sand- 
stone fortress at Agra, and his tomb near by. Shah 
Jehan has there the unrivaled Taj Mahal, his Pearl 
Mosque within the fort, and at Delhi the Great 
Mosque and the palace. Aurungzeb by attempting 
to impose his Moslem faith upon the body of the 
Hindus undermined the authority of his house, 
and the Marathas came forward as a new Hindu 
power in central and western India. 

The tempest of invasion by the Afghans, break- Closing Date 
ing the power of the Marathas at the third battle Mohammedan 
of Panipat in 1761, and the rising fortunes of the Dominion 
English as the coming rulers, make this date the 
most appropriate as terminating the era of Moham- 

^Hunter, Indian Empire, 240. 

Uhid, 237. 



38 The Christian Conquest of India 

medan dominion/ During the centuries of its 
sway, portions of the population, especially in 
eastern Bengal, became Mohammedan in religion. 

Continental European Settlements 
J^* In 1492 Christopher Columbus sailed westward 

Portuguese ^ 

from Europe, hoping to find a new way to India, 
but found America instead. Five years later 
Vasco da Gama started from Lisbon with an expe- 
dition, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and in 
May, 1498, anchored off the city of Calicuf on the 
southwest coast of India. From that date .began 
the period of contact with, and settlements in 
India by a number of the continental European 
nations. As Portugal was the first of these to find 
the sea route to the East, her people enjoyed a 
monopoly of Oriental trade for a century, from 
1500 to 1600. But their efforts to establish Portu- 
guese authority in India w^ere too deeply marked 
by superstition and cruelty to produce lasting 
results. Albuquerque was the only worthy leader 
of expeditions or governor of settlements in India 
who treated the natives with kindness. The pos- 
sessions in India now remaining to the Portuguese 
are Goa, Daman, and Diu, all on the west coast, 
with an area of 1,558 square miles and a popula- 
tion in 1901 of 572,290.' 

^Lilly, India and Its Protlems, 97. 
^The place giving rise to the word "calico." It 
must not be confused with Calcutta. 

^Beach, hidia and Christian Opportunity, 66. 



Invaders and Eulers 



39 



Duringr the seventeenth century the Dutch held Various 

, . , T T T Companies 

a leading position in the trade with India and and 
the East, with the English as their rivals. The Settlements 
English East India Company was formed in 1600, 
and the Dutch East India Company in 1602. 
Next came the French with a succession of com- 
panies of which the first was established in 1604. 
Danish settlements were founded at Tranquebar 
and Serampur in 1616, and acquired by the Eng- 
lish by purchase in 1845. The German or Ostend 
Company was incorporated in 1722, but the jeal- 
ousies and diplomatic adjustments of the European 
powers led to the extinction of its two settlements 
in 1793. Less important, and partly abortive 
attempts were made by Prussia in 1750 and 1753, 
and by Sweden in 1731, the latter being the last 
nation of Europe to engage in maritime trade with 
India, as the company was reorganized in 1806.^ 

Out of all these aspirants for foothold and power struggle of 
in India the final decisive stru2f2fle narrowed itself France and 

°° Great Britain 

down to two — France and Great Britain. Even 
with them the rise and fall of their strength in the 
East often simply reechoed the advantage which 
one power or the other gained over its antagonist 
in the European field, or in the expanding western 
world of America. For a time success seemed to 
attend the efforts of France both in America and 
India. As Montcalm, the leader of the French 
^Hunter, A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, 
173, 174; Beach, India a7id Christian Opportunity. 
66-68. 



40 The Christian Conquest of India 

power in the western world, had a succession of 
victories at Fort Ontario, Fort William Henry, 
and Fort Ticonderoga, but at length fell, and his 
cause forever failed, on the Heights of Abraham, 
before the British forces led by Wolfe; so the 
French arms in India under Dupleix won success 
after success at Fort Saint George and at the fort- 
ress of Gingi, only to go down forever, as far as 
dominion in India was concerned, before the genius 
of Clive at the battle of Plassey/ 

British Control and Development 
Outline of j^q^ infrequently a commander or leader learns 

the secret of success from his foes. The most care- 
ful English writers now recognize that it was the 
French leader Dupleix who, in the years from 1740 
to 1750, first discerned the leading principles and 
points of policy that made possible the control of 
India by a European power.^ Dupleix himself par- 
tially applied this policy, but it was left for Clive, 
the East India Company, and Great Britain to 
carry it out so thoroughly as in the end to make 
India a part of the British empire. Some of the 
points involved may be noted. 

^The Battle of Plassey was fought about seventy 
miles north of Calcutta, June 23, 1757. 

By the treaties of 1814 and 1815 there remain as 
French dependencies in India five separate towns: 
Pondicherri, Karikal, Chandernagar, Mahe, and Yan- 
aon, with a total area of 196 square miles and a 
population in 1903 of 273,748. Statesman's Year- 
Book, 1905, p. 637. 

^Seeley, The Expansion of England, 201, 211, 212. 



Invaders and Eulers 41 

The English were a peaceful trading company, war an 
but they employed troops to defend their factories ppo'^^^^^y 
against the French and the natives. England was 
at war with France during much of the time from 
1740 to 1820, the period during which the British 
control of India was largely decided. English ac- 
quisition of power in the East began not in some 
quarrel between the East India Company and a 
native state. It began in an alarming attempt 
made by the French to get control over the Deccan, 
which would lead to the destruction of the English 
settlements at Madras and Bombay. Thus the first 
military movements of the English in India were 
made to defend themselves, and the positions they 
already held, against the French. In all their 
later advance steps, till the close of the Napoleonic 
wars, the struggle for dominion in India was felt 
to be a part of the great contest of the English 
nation with France. 

Again, there came to the English large extension TerrUo ° 
of territory and increase of revenues, in conse- and Revenues 
quence of their wars and dealings with native 
powers. They soon learned the advantage whenever 
an issue arose of favoring a rival to a position 
which was under the patronage of their foes. 
When Dupleix, in 1748, placed his nominees on the 
thrones of Haidarabad and Arcot, the English were 
ready with a candidate to the throne of Arcot in the 
person of Muhammad Ali. When Colonel Clive 
defeated at Plassey the viceroy of Bengal, who had 



42 The Christian Conquest of India 

sided with the French, he had at hand Mir Jafar 
to elevate to this viceregal post, as Nawab of Ben- 
gal, and obtained for him the official decree of 
appointment from the Mogul emperor at Delhi. 
For this service, Mir Jafar granted to the East 
India Company the landholder's rights over an 
extensive tract of country around Calcutta, and 
paid a sum of not less than a million and a half 
dollars/ This policy thenceforward was increas- 
ingly employed. Government everywhere through- 
out the land was disorganized owing to the break- 
ing down of Mogul dominion. There were wars 
and clashing interests of native rulers and aspi- 
rants to power. The English came in as arbiters 
among these contending forces at a critical period, 
and in return for their services received immense 
extensions of territory and enlargements of 
revenue. 
Paramount Then, as the final and loajical result, it was seen 

Authority ' ° ' 

that England should become the paramount power, 
not only in the territory which had been acquired, 
but over all the native or feudatory states. Only in 
this way could permanent peace and order be 
secured and the progress of all India toward a 
higher civilization be made possible. 
Able Founders Among thosc wlio did most to win the control of 
India for Great Britain are Eobert Clive, the hero 
of the battle of Plassey; Warren Hastings, who 

^Hunter, A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, 
178-182. 



of Empire 



Invaders and Eulers 43 

kept for England, in a great crisis, the empire 
which Clive had founded; Lord Wellesley, who first 
clearly laid down the principle that the English 
must be the one paramount power, and that native 
princes could only retain their insignia of sover- 
eignty by relinquishing political authority; and 
Lord Dalhousie, "the greatest of Indian pro-con- 
suls/' who made remarkable additions to the Brit- 
ish possessions in India, and at the same time 
abolished manifold wrongs and brought about most 
valuable internal improvements. During his 
administration from 1848 to 1856, in the words 
of Hunter : "He founded the Public Works Depart- 
ment, with a view to creating the network of roads 
[railroads] and canals which now cover India. He 
opened the Ganges canal, still the largest work of 
the kind in the country ; he turned the sod of the 
first Indian railway. He promoted steam commu- 
nication with England via the Eed Sea ; he intro- 
duced cheap postage and the electric telegraph."^ 

The most important event in Indian history The Mutiny 
during the latter half of the nineteenth century 
was the Mutiny of 1857, in which the sepoys in 
British military service revolted, kindling a vast 
flame of rebellion to British authority throughout 
the valley of the Ganges and in Central India. 

It is perhaps not possible to give the real causes its causes 
of this great uprising. Those usually suggested lie 

^Hunter, A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, 
214. 215. 



44 The Christian Conquest of India 



The Outcome 



Transference 
to the Crown 



upon the surface. It is averred that the policy of 
annexation had been carried to an extreme. The 
appearance of Western inventions like the steam 
engine and the telegraph is said to have created 
widespread alarm. The failure of the government 
to open avenues of official promotion to the natives 
is considered to have been a grievance. Even the 
use of lard to grease the cartridges served to native 
regiments, so making them ceremonially unclean 
alike to Hindu and Mohammedan, vras probably a 
blundering accident that has been made to serve 
as a cause. The fundamental reason seems to have 
been that a crisis was reached in the transition 
from the old India to the new, much like that 
shown in the Boxer uprising in China in 1900. 

The quelling of the rebellion added immortal 
honor to British names like those of Havelock and 
Campbell, in relieving Lucknow, and of Nichol- 
son in turning the scale at the siege of Delhi. 
Brilliant operations covered with glory alike 
British troops and native forces that remained 
loyally on the English side. The awful era of 
peril, suffering, and death has left as visible memo- 
rials the ruined residency at Lucknow and the 
Memorial Well at Cawnpur. But, as in China 
after Peking was re-occupied, the last sparks of 
the Mutiny were hardly quenched before mission- 
ary operations leaped forward by a new impulse. 

The Mutiny caused the transference in 1858 of 
the government of India from the East India Com- 



Invaders and Enlers 45 

pany to the Crown of Great Britain. Finally, as 
a second notable date, on January 1, 1877, Queen 
Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India at a 
durbar^ of unparalleled magnificence, on the his- 
toric "ridge'^ overlooking the ancient MogTil capi- 
tal of Delhi; and the long course of events by 
which India has come to be a part of the British 
empire was complete. 

This event has been fittingly followed, at the opening of the 
opening of the twentieth century and the com- c^tui^' 
mencement of the reign of King Edward VII, by 
the Indian commemoration of his coronation, Jan- 
uary 1, 1903, when he was proclaimed by the vice- 
roy, as Emperor on the same site at Delhi that 
witnessed Queen Victoria's reception of the impe- 
rial title. In the great ceremony, which was fol- 
lowed by a considerable reduction of taxation, 
over a hundred rulers of separate states testified 
their allegiance to their common sovereign. 

By its latest enumeration, the results of which British 

, . 2 1 -I-. • • 1 • Empire and 

were announced m 1906, the British empire British India 

embraces 11,908,378 square miles, or slightly less 

than one fourth of the earth's land surface, and 

over 400,000,000 people. Of this immense total, 

India represents over one seventh of the territory 

and three fourths of the population, or 300,000,000 

people. The British possessions, comprising all 

the territory directly under British control, have, 

^An official reception or levee given by a native 
ruler or officer of rank in British India. 

^Census of the British Empire, 1906. 



46 The Christian Conquest of India 

according to the census of 1901, an area of 1,768,- 
061 square miles, and a population of 231,898,807, 
and are distributed into fourteen provinces. Each 
has its own governor or head, but all are controlled 
by the supreme governing authority of India, con- 
sisting of a Governor-General in council. The 
Governor- General, who is also called Viceroy, is 
appointed by the king of England, as are also the 
governors of the provinces of Madras and Bombay. 
The heads of the other provinces are chosen for 
their merit from those in the Anglo-Indian service. 
Among the leading provinces, after Madras and 
Bombay, are Bengal, United Provinces of Agra 
and Oudh, Central Provinces, Berar, Punjab, 
Assam, and Burma. 
Feudatory The Native States and Agencies number thirteen 
divisions for administrative purposes, with 
an area of 679,393 square miles, and a popu- 
lation in 1901, of 62,461,549. The native princes 
govern their states with the help and under the 
advice of a British Eesident, whom the Viceroy 
stations at their courts. The British government, 
as suzerain in India, interferes when any prince 
misgoverns his people; rebukes, and if needful, 
dethrones the oppressor; protects the weak and 
imposes peace upon all. Of the Native States and 
Agencies, the more important are Haidarabad, 
Pajputana Agency, Central India Agency, Mysore 
States, Central Provinces States, Baroda State, 
and the Native States politically attached to 



Invaders and Eulers 



47 



Madras, Bombay, Bengal, and the United 
Provinces.^ 

The question might be asked how Great Britain 
is able to hold India. There is at the bottom the 
great ignorance and poverty of the masses. The 
Indian people also lack unity and a sense of 



BOK/^/l/i/4 p^j^lfi £/ISr£/iA/ Tl/AKS^T/IA/ 



/l/£//y4/V/3r^// 



T / B € T 




OF 

\MadrQS \a/vd/iman 

COCHIN^ V / /v 
TRAVANCOKi^ / P\ci 

Co/omdoh \ British Territary ["""1 

c.».Mo^3^,v ^^ Native StRtas ^^ 



nationality, so that native soldiers can always be 
enlisted for service in India. Of the armies 
that won India for England four fifths consisted 
of native troops, and of the forces which garrison 
India, two thirds are natives."^ This statement, 

^Hunter, A Brie-f History of the Indian Peoples, 
32-35. 

^Seeley, Tlie Expansion of England, 227. 



The Holding 
of India 



48 The Christian Conquest of India 



Arbiter for 
Peace and 
Progress 



Conservative 
Outlook 
Tov/ard a 
Higher Future 



almost in itself, answers the question as to how 
Great Britain holds India. An amazingly small 
outlay of either men or money has been required 
on England's part for the winning and holding of 
her Indian empire. 

But there are far deeper reasons to account for 
Great Britain's power to retain India as a part of 
her possessions. She has shown all the different 
races, rulers, native states, and creeds that they 
have more to expect from her than from each other 
if she did not maintain peace among them. Fur- 
thermore, there is the military prestige of Great 
Britain and the advantage of belonging to one of 
the foremost world powers, whose vast resources 
are held ready to defend India against the aggres- 
sions of any other nation. English rule in India 
has also shown itself capable of promptly repres- 
sing outbreaks and reforming abuses, while at the 
same time it has been wise, temperate, and conser- 
vative in abolishing native customs or interfering 
with long cherished institutions. 

This last feature of British policy has often been 
a special trial to the missionaries with their 
advanced ideas of progress, religious, moral, and 
social, but it has doubtless largely been a necessity 
in order that the British administration should not 
find itself too far ahead of the people. It is to be 
remembered that England entered India and has 
remained there primarily for commercial and gov- 
ernmental purposes, and at every step has had to 



b7' 






r 








Public Library, Allahabad 







Victoria Railway Station, Bombay 



Invaders and Rulers 49. 

justify its course to public opinion both at home 
and in India/ Though it has not been able to 
respond to all the demands made upon it from 
every side, and at times has moved very slowly, the 
Indian government has swept away an imposing 
list of evils. Among these are widow-burning, the 
sacrifice of the lives of children and others in some 
of the religious processions and festivals, exposure 
of infants or casting them into the sacred rivers, 
the denial of educational opportunity to women 
and to men of the lower castes, extortion, cruel 
punishments, and numerous other abuses and 
wrongs formerly prevalent under native laws, cus- 
toms, and administration. It has also powerfully 
elevated the moral and social life of the people. 
Best of all, British rule in India is never content 
with what has been attained, but has its eyes ever 
on a higher future. 

The control, improvements, and development British Ruie 
which British rule have brought to India are 
exceedingly favorable, on the whole, to the native 
people themselves and to the progress of missions. 
As respects taxes upon the natives, W. B. Stover 
says : "The taxation per head is lighter than in any 
other civilized country in the world. In Russia it 
is eight times as great, in England twenty times, 
in Italy nineteen, in France twenty-five, in the 
United States and Germany thirteen times."' The 

^Lyall, Asiatic Studies, 259. 
^Stover, India: A Problem, 18, 19. 



50 The Christian Conquest of India 



Good Out- 
weighing Evil 



Impressive 

Native 

Testimony 



money derived from taxes goes directly into the 
treasury of the Indian government, and therefore 
in reality is used for Indians benefit. 

British control is bringing more and more the 
prevalence of social peace and justice from one end 
of the land to the other. The natives are being 
given a surprisingly large participation in the fran- 
chise and in public office. Education is rapidly 
extending its privileges to the masses, the efforts 
of Christian missions adding no small part to the 
work of the government, so that one ninth of all 
the school enrolment of India is found in mission 
schools.^ It is true that the evils of the production 
of opium and extension of its use, the state monop- 
oly of the drink traffic, together with the sad 
example of indulgence in strong drink by British 
officials, and the deplorable immorality in some 
degree prevalent among British soldiers in India, 
are reproaches which yet remain to be removed. 
But notwithstanding these drawbacks, the verdict 
of the missionaries is that British control of India 
is a marvelous example of efficiency, wisdom, pro- 
gressiveness, and fairness to a subject race. 

This verdict is also confirmed by native testi- 
mony, as is seen in these eloquent words, in which 
Babu S. ]Sr. Banerji expresses the sentiment of the 
most thoughtful and influential natives of the 
country : * 

^^Our allegiance to the British rule is based upon 
^Jones, India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 29. 



Invaders and Eulers 51 

the highest considerations of practical expediency. 
As a representative of the educated community of 
India — and I am entitled to speak on their behalf 
and in their name — I may say that we regard Brit- 
ish rule in India as a dispensation of divine Provi- 
dence. England is here for the highest and the 
noblest purposes of history. She is here to rejuve- 
nate an. ancient people, to infuse into them the 
vigor, the virility, and the robustness of the West, 
and so pay off the long standing debt, accumulat- 
ing since the morning of the world, which the West 
owes to the East. We are anxious for the perma- 
nence of British rule in India, not only as a guar- 
antee for stability and order, but because with it 
are bound up the best prospects of our political 
advancement. To the English people has been 
entrusted in the councils of Providence the high 
function of teaching the nations of the earth the 
great lesson of constitutional liberty, of securing 
the ends of stable government, largely tempered by 
popular freedom. This glorious work has been 
nobly begun in India. It has been resolutely car- 
ried on by a succession of illustrious Anglo-Indian 
statesmen whose names are enshrined in our grate- 
ful recollections. Marvelous as have been the in- 
dustrial achievements of the Victorian era in 
India, they sink into insignificance when compared 
with the great moral trophies which distinguish 
that epoch Roads have been constructed; rivers 
have been spanned; telegraph and railway lines 



52 The Christian Conquest of India 

have been laid down; time and space have been 
annihilated; nature and the appliances of nature 
have been made to minister to the wants of man. 
But these are nothing when compared to the bold, 
decisive, statesmanlike measures which have been 
taken in hand for the intellectual, the moral, and 
the political regeneration of my countrymeii. 
Under English influences the torpor of ages has 
been dissipated ; the pulsations of a new life have 
been communicated to the people; an inspiriting 
sense of public duty has been evolved ; the spirit of 
curiosity has been stirred, and a moral revolution, 
the most momentous in our annals, culminating in 
the transformation of national ideals and aspira- 
tions, has been brought about/^^ 
A Divinely At the samc time it is evident that the British 

Purposed Goal pg^pjg ^rc Only beginning to realize the wonderful 
part which in God^s providence they are fulfilling, 
and are destined to fulfill, in the evangelization of 
India. The fact that they are one of the foremost 
Protestant Christian nations ; that in their mate- 
rial development of India, by railways, by canals 
and irrigating works, by improved industrial prod- 
ucts, and in their care for higher interests, such 
as education, freedom of worship, and equal justice 
to high and low, they have won the confidence and 
regard of Indians millions; the further fact that 
the government distinctly welcomes and approves 
the missionary operations of America, not less than 
^Quoted in Jones, India's Pro'blem: Krishna or 
Christ, 51, 52. 



Invaders and Kulers 53 

Great Britain, makes it certain that the historical 
evolution of India has led to a divinely purposed 
conclusion. Great Britain^s control of India is a 
vast step toward the Christian conquest of India. 

In view of their remarkable missionary service, Far western 
past and present, to the land of the Vedas, the e7suV ^" 
Churches of the United States and Canada may be 
said to be the final invaders of India ; but theirs is 
a great peaceful enterprise, the obligation of which 
they joyfully accept in union with the Christian 
forces of Great Britain. These sister peoples are 
closely related by ties of history, of commerce, of 
religion, of language, of national and political 
interest, and of blood relationship. In a peculiar 
manner the burden of the evangelization of the 
world, and especially of the Indian peoples, as so 
largely members of the great Aryan family, rests 
upon these English-speaking Churches on both 
sides of the Atlantic. To these countries has 
been given in large measure the wealth of the 
world. The gold in California, Alaska, and the 
Klondyke, in Australia and South Africa, was kept 
from the eyes of aboriginal races and of Spaniard 
and Eussian till these regions could come under 
the control of this one great Protestant race. * 
Within the past three years the United States 
and Canada together have approximately equaled 
Great Britain in their amount — about forty per 
cent, each — toward the world^s total annual contri- 
bution for foreign missions. Side by side these two 



54 The Christian Conquest of India 

great sections of the English-speaking race are 
moving forward, through Christian and missionary 
agencies, to bring the millions of India to share 
in the same liberty, enlightenment, and civilization 
to which the religion of Christ has led the Aryans 
of the West. 

QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER II 

Aim: To Realize the Challenge to Christian Mis- 
sions Involved in British Control in India 
I. . .Panorama of Indian Peoples. 

1. What are the principal races that constitute the 

population of India? 

2. How do these compare in diversity with the 

nations of Europe? 
3.* What tendencies would operate toward the in- 
termingling cf these races? What tendencies 
toward separation? 

11... Steps in British Occupation. 

4. What was the political condition of India in the 

middle of the eighteenth century? 

5. What had become of the power of the Great 

Mogul? 

6. What invasions and wars were disorganizing 

society? 

7. To what extent was there any national feeling? 
S. To what extent were the people accustomed to 

the rule of foreigners? 

9. What was the original motive that took the Eu- 

ropean nations to India? 

10. Was war to their interest or not? 

11. What led to war between the English and 
French? 



Invaders and Enlers 55 

12. By what means did each seek to strength itself 

against the other? 

13. In what position did the English emerge in con- 

sequence cf success in the war? 
14.* Was their attitude up to this point justifiable? 

15. What led to extension of territory and revenue 

when England had become the paramount 
power? 

16. Was it right for her to assume control in order 

to maintain order? 

17.* What would have been the state of affairs in 
the country if England had never chosen to 
interfere under any circumstances? 

18.* To what extent was this control of the country 
foreseen and planned? 

19*. To what extent was it unavoidable and justi- 
fiable? 



III...T?ie Talue of British Rule. 

20. If you were a peasant in northern India what 
would it be worth to you to know that inva- 
sions and wars were no longer a possibility? 

21.* Who would govern the country if England 
retired? 

22.* What would be the probable course of events? 

23. What is the relative safety of life and property 

now and before English control? 

24. Along what lines have social customs been im- 

proved? 

25. In what ways has the development of railway 
communication been a biessing? 

26. Sum up the elevating social and political in- 
fluences that have resulted from British con- 
trol. 

27. Do they constitute it a moral necessity? 



56 The CbTistian Conquest of India 

IV. . .The Need of Missionary Effort. 

28. How do we compare on the average in enlighten- 

ment and advancement with the people of 
India? 

29. Do we need religious institutions and education 

in addition to what is provided by the state? 

30. How much more is the highest and purest 
teaching needed in India? 

Y...T'he Responsibility of America. 

31. Is Great Britain doing all for the Christian 
conquest of India that needs to be done? 

32. Is she behind other nations in her contributions 

to the evangelization of the world? 

33. Is India appreciably better manned with mis- 
sionaries than the other great mission fields? 

34. What in general has been the length, extent, 
and success of American missnonary operation 
in India? 

35. What is the attitude of the government toward 

American missionaries? 

36. What possible advantages might American mis- 

sionaries have over English workers? 

37. Would it be possible at this time to confine the 

missionary operations of Christian nations 
each to a single foreign field? 

38. What then is the special responsibility of 
America for India? 

References fob Advanced Study. — Chaptee II 

1. . .MoJiammedan Rule. 

Curtis: Modern India, XIII. 

Hunter: Brief History of the Indian Peoples, X. 

Lilly: India and Its Problems, IX. 



Invaders and Kulers 57 

II.., British Rule, 
Curtis: Modern India, VII. 
Denning: Mosaics from India, II. 
Frazer: British Rule in India, XV, XVI. 
Fuller: The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood, XII, 

XIII. 
Mason: Lux Christi, 58-72. 
Seeley: The Expansion of England, III, IV, V. 
Stewart: Life and Work in India, III. 
Temple: A Bird's-Eye View of Picturesque India, 

IX, X. 

III. . .Mutiny. 
Butler: The Land of the Veda, VI, VII, VIII. 
Frazer: British Rule in India, XIV. 
Hunter: Brief History of the Indian Peoples, XV, 
Mason: Lux Christi, 66-69. 

IV. . .British Statesmen. 

Frazer: British Rule in India, V. (Clive.) 

Frazer: British Rule in India, XL (Lord William 
Bentinck. ) 

Smith: Twelve Indian Statesmen, III. (John, Lord 
Lawrence of the Punjab.) 

Smith: Twelve Indian Statesmen, II. (Sir Henry- 
Lawrence). 

Smith: Twelve Indian Statesmen, VIII. (Sir Her- 
bert B. Edwardes.) 



THE PEOPLE 



CHAPTER III 



THE PEOPLE 

The people of India have not descended from 
a common ancestry, but are a heterogeneous mass 
of tribes, races, and tongnes. Their diverse origin 
and the size of the country make it possible to 
write of them only in a general way. Customs 
that prevail in one section will probably be un- 
known in another. As well expect the same cus- 
toms to obtain in Manitoba and Florida, as to look 
for the same mode of life in Kashmir and Travan- 
core. Another cause for irregularity is the differ- 
ing nature of the three chief religions — Hindu- 
ism, Mohammedanism, and Buddhism. Apparent 
contradictions in the reports of missionaries and 
travelers may be accounted for by this fact. 

The larger part of the population is of Aryan 
origin. They are about 221,000,000 in number, 
and occupy the territory not included by N'epal, 
Burma, and Assam and north of 19° north lati- 
tude. The Aryan race includes the Hindu, the 
Persian, the Greek, the Teuton, the Celt, the Slav, 
and, in fact, most of the peoples of Europe and 
North America. No student who investigates 
the subject can long doubt that the ancient 
Aryan ancestors of the Europeans belonged to the 

61 



Heteroge- 
neous People 



Races 



62 The Christian Conquest of India 

same race and once lived in the same ancestral 
home as the progenitors of the Aryan people in 
India. The territory south of the Aryans is largely 
held by the Dravido-Munda — or non- Aryans — who 
approximate 60,000,000. Of these, 56,000,000 are 
Dravidian. They probably came from the north- 
west and were pushed southward by the invading 
Aryans. The Indo-Chinese are confined to Nepal, 
Assam, and Burma. They number nearly twelve 
million and are composed almost wholly of the 
Tibeto-Burmans who entered India from the 
northeast. While this general language-grouping 
is not a safe criterion of racial difference, it is 
sufficiently accurate for our purpose. 
Languages According to the census of 1901, the languages 
spoken by the people of India number one hun- 
dred and eighty-five,^ sixteen of which are spoken 
by more than 3,000,000 each.' The Hindi," Ben- 
gali, Marathi, Panjabi, Eajasthani, Gujarati and 
Oriya indicate a common origin at a date not very 

^Many of the languages are only well developed 
dialects; 18 are other Asiatic languages spoken hy 
153,902; 23 are European languages spoken by 
269,997. 

^In the chart on p. 63, Western Hindi, Bihari, and 
Eastern Hindi of the census are given as a total 
under Hindi. 

^Hindustani, spoken by about one hundred mil- 
lions, is the most modern of the tongues spoken. It 
is simply the Hindi with a large admixture of Per- 
sian and Arabic words and idioms. In the census, 
those who use Hindustani are chiefly given under the 
two divisions of the Hindi and the Bihari, and Hin- 
dustani is not reported. 



The People 



63 



far removed from the historic period. These lan- 
guages are used by about two thirds of the peo- 
ple in the empire, and are closely related to the 



LANGUAGES OF INDIA 

SPOKEN BY 3,000,000 OR MORE POPULATION 




( \A/&St^rn Hindi, B/han, and Eastern Hindi ) 






Te/UOU.20,6S6y87Z 



/^ajast/jani, / 0,9/ 7,7/2 
Kanarese , /0, 565, 047 
Gujarat/ , S, 928, 50/ 
Or/ya, 9,687, ^Z9 
Burmese^ 7,^7^,396 
/^a/oya/a/77, 6, O 2 S, 5 04 
La/7nc/cL, '5,<567,S/ 7 
S/ndh/, 3,0O6,Z95 




/690thers spoMen by /7.373,2Z5\ Popu/a t/o n 



Sanskrit, which is not now spolvcn. Four 
languages are spoken by as many distinct races, 
inhabiting the peninsular section of the empire. 



acteristics 



64 The Christian Conquest of India 

On the west the Kanarese are found ; on the east 
the Telugus; south and east of these two, the 
Tamil; and in the extreme southwest the Malay- 
alam people have their home. These people are 
all considered a branch of the Dravidian race. 
Many other languages might be named, but most 
of them are local tongues and consequently of 
minor importance. English being the language 
of the government and of higher education, is 
rapidly coming into use, and many of the edu- 
cated, including many Indian ladies, are begin- 
ning to use it in their ordinary conversation. 
Physical Char. The appearance of the people varies with cli- 
mate, environment, and occupation as well as ra- 
cial peculiarities. The Aryan type in general is 
brown, from dark to coffee-colored, of medium 
height, black hair, oval face, and pronounced lips. 
As a rule they are stronger and more courageous 
in the north than in the south. The Dravidians 
have a darker complexion, longer heads, irregular 
features, and are short and squat in stature. The 
Burmans are Mongolian in type. Between the 
sturdy Aryans of the north and the primitive 
people of the south there is a great gulf, and there 
are many diversities in character and tempera- 
ment. Among the wild tribes the most interest- 
ing are the Andaman Islanders, who bear a strik- 
ing resemblance to the pygmies of Central Africa. 
The Indians, while existing on scanty sustenance, 
have remarkable powers of endurance, but in phy- 



The People 



65 



Intellectual 
Gifts 



sical strength and nervous energy one American is 
equal to about six of them. 

The people of India differ widely in their intel- 
lectual gifts, but taken as a whole, they compare 
very favorably with any other non- Christian 
people in the world. The Bengali and Tamil 
young men are sometimes taunted for their lack 
of physical courage, but they can reply that they 
are able to take and hold the leading place in 
intellectual contests. The Tamil people boast that 
their literature is the most extensive as well as 
the best in India, while the Bengalis point to their 
daily and monthly periodicals and to the fourteen 
thousand students in attendance at the colleges 
of Calcutta. Some of the Bengali orators acquire 
a really marvelous mastery of English style. 
They also excel in mathematical studies. Man 
for man, and boy for boy, any hundred students 
taken from the schools of Calcutta will pass an 
examination test successfully if pitted against an 
equal number of students taken from the best 
schools of North America. N'evertheless, igno- 
rance and low mentality are inevitable in the 
lower castes and among the hill tribes who have 
never had an opportunity for study. 

One element seems to be strangely wanting in Lack ot 
the mental equipment of the Indian people; they 
invent nothing. Their few farming implements 
and workmen's tools are as old as their traditions. 
They neither improve the old nor invent the new. 



Inventiveness 



nesj» 



66 The Christian Conquest of India 

The whole non-Christian world has for centuries 
seemed to be retrogressive in its industries rather 
than progressive, and it is a most suggestive fact 
that no mental awakening has been seen except in 
lands which have been brought into vital touch 
with Christianity. 
Tolerance and In most parts of India a broad line of division 
^^ogressive- ^^ drawTi bctwecn Hindus and Mohammedans. 
The former constitute about two thirds and the 
latter about one fifth of the population. The 
Hindu is the more tolerant of the two, so long as 
his caste privileges are not interfered with, and in 
spite of his conservative instincts is more in sym- 
pathy with the spirit of modern progress than his 
Mohammedan neighbor. The first generation of 
young men educated up to the European standard 
was composed almost exclusively of Hindus, but 
in the more recent years the Mohammedans have 
entered into the general competition for govern- 
ment employment with energy, and many leading 
members of their community manifest a very com- 
mendable public spirit. 
Education The people of India, when viewed in the mass, 
are an illiterate people. According to the last 
oensus, out of a total population of 294,361,056, 
there were 149,442,106 males. Of these, 134,752,- 
026 were analphabet, and only 14,690,080 could 
read and write. Of the 143,972,800 females, only 
996,341 could read or write or were being in- 
structed. In short, less than ten per cent, of the 



The People 67 

males and about one in 144 of the females are in 
any sense literate. The cause of popular, as well 
as higher education has made remarkable progress 
during the last half century. The statistics com- 
piled to March 31, 1904, show an enrolment of 
4,367,685 males and 515,296 females in the public 
and private schools, and in the colleges of the 
country. It is estimated that in British India, 
22.6 per cent, of the boys of school-going age 
attend school, and 2.6 per cent, of the girls. The 
Universities of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, AUa- 
habad, and the Punjab are at the head of the 
national educational system in India. These in- 
stitutions offer no instruction, but are simply 
examining boards, having numerous affiliated col- 
leges in which a prescribed course of higher edu- 
cation is given those in attendance. Art, medi- 
cal, law, normal, engineering, and agricultural 
schools are increasing rapidly, and female educa- 
tion is receiving special attention. The govern- 
ment of India has made most praiseworthy efforts 
to found a practical system of education, not only 
for the masses but also for those who prove them- 
selves capable of a college training. The result 
is that an able class of writers and speakers, who 
reflect credit upon themselves, and no less upon 
the government system of education, is coming to 
the front and assuming positions of influence in 
both the political and social world. An intense 
desire to acquire a knowledge of English is mani-^ 



68 



The Christian Conquest of India 



Vernacular 
Newspapers 



Cities, Towns, 
and Villages 



fested among the young men and boys in all parts 
of the empire, and it is evident that the next cen- 
tury will dawn upon millions in India who will 
speak and write the English language as correctly 
as the average Englishman does at the present 
day. 

While English will increase in influence, the 
work of missions must be accomplished through 
the vernaculars. Newspapers and periodicals in 
the native tongues are increasing. During 1903, 
797 newspapers were published. The daily paper 
with the largest circulation was the Bombay 
Samachar, with 4,000 copies per issue. The 
Hitavadi of Calcutta had a weekly circulation of 
16,000 copies. There are also three other weekly 
papers with a circulation of more than 13,000 
each.^ 

City life affects a minority of India's inhabi- 
tants, and European influence is becoming more 
pronounced in the large centers through adminis- 
tration and commerce. Ninety per cent, of the 
population is in towns and villages, which, al- 
though differing in size, do not vary much in 
general appearance. A town is an overgrown vil- 
lage and has a magistrate and petty court to man- 
age its judicial affairs. The whole country outside 
the cities and towns is mapped out by government 
survey into district areas, called villages, and in 
each village area there may be included hamlets. 

^Statesman's Y ear-Book, 1905, 144. 




Burmese Coast Village 




Santal Village Courtyard 
Grain Drying and Plows Behind Man Standing 



The People 69 

A village has its headman who, aided by a clerk 
and council of five, decides cases of a moral 
nature. Other personages of importance in a vil- 
lage organization are the village priest, the astrol- 
oger, schoolmaster, watchman, barber, smith, shoe- 
maker, carpenter, and potter. Village lands are 
around the hamlets and are cultivated by those 
who own them, but in some parts whole villages 
are owned by absentee landlords. It is into these 
streets and lanes that the majority of the mission- 
aries carry their message of love. 

The homes of wealthy natives are capacious, and Homes 
frequently furnish accommodations for two hun- 
dred persons. Those of the middle and lower classes 
are gloomy and unattractive. Usually they are set 
in a courtyard the rear of which is to the street, and 
consist of mud walls, with small windows set high, 
earthern floors, and no chimneys. In northern 
India most of the houses have flat roofs, but in 
the south, and in Burma, thatched roofs are more 
common. The rooms of the women usually open 
on a veranda. Within the houses there is very 
little if any furniture, but in many homes cows, 
calves, buffaloes, and bullocks are received on inti- 
mate terms. Sometimes there are crude bedsteads 
with only a blanket for covering. As a rule there 
are some brass plates and cups, earthern cooking 
vessels and water jars, perhaps one knife, but no 
forks. The cooking utensils are kept scrupulously 
clean by the Hindus, lest the food should be 



70 



The Christian Conquest of India 



Domestic Life 



Food and 
Clothing 



defiled, and the laws of caste broken. Among the 
Mohammedans cleanliness is not so prevalent. 

The domestic life of the people of India is that 
of the Oriental world, and to say this is to remark 
that it has some features that are utterly foreign 
to the ideal of a Christian home. When a visitor 
to India some years ago was addressing an audi- 
ence through an Indian interpreter, he used the 
word "home." The interpreter abruptly paused. 
The speaker repeated the sentence;, when the 
embarrassed interpreter said, "Sir, in the sense in 
which you use the word ^home,^ there is no equiva- 
lent for the word in any Indian language." The 
Christian home is the product of vital Christian- 
ity. To the majority of the human race, the home 
is simply a place in which to live. 

^ine tenths of the people subsist on rice and 
curry, or cakes of wheat, or some variety of millet 
baked on the coals of a small fire outside the 
house. Most persons try to provide two meals a 
day, but many millions often fail to do so. Scanty 
garments, made from the cheapest cotton fabrics, 
are provided for the boys perhaps once a year, 
while the girls fare a little better. The clothing 
of the average child in the empire does not cost 
more than ten or fifteen cents a year, and as a rule 
children, until they are three or four years of age, 
wear no clothing. 

India may be said to be a rich country, inhabited 
by a very poor people. For many years it bore the 



The People - 71 

reputation of fabulous wealth, and every Euro- 
pean who went there to engage in business was 
expected to return laden with riches in some form, rj^.^ country, 
but that illusion has long since passed away. In- but People 
dia is no longer a land of promise to the adven- ^^® ^°°^ 
turer from abroad, nor does it bestow its wealth 
upon its children except as a reward for honest, 
well-directed, and vigorous labor. A goodly num- 
ber of the higher classes have inherited what in 
Europe would be considered a moderate compe- 
tence, a few have acquired valuable property, and 
a very few are immensely wealthy, but the mass 
of the people are very poor indeed. Common 
laborers are easily secured for five or six cents a 
day, and millions would be glad to accept perma- 
nent employment at from twenty-five to fifty 
dollars a year. It is estimated that over sixty 
millions of the people constantly suffer hunger, 
and hence fall easy victims before drought and 
famine. 

However, most of this poverty is self-inflicted, some causes 
The insane passion for jewels and the litigious ° ^"^^^ ^ 
spirit of the people are an awful drain upon their 
meager resources. The four million beggars also 
constantly prey upon the proverbial charity of the 
Hindu. Frequently a man spends on the marriage 
of a son or daughter, especially the latter, more 
than a year's income and is plunged into the 
clutches of the money lender who extracts monthly 
his two or three per cent. 



72 



The Christian Conquest of India 



Womanhood 



Hindu 
Married Life 



Mohammedan 
Married Life 



The actual status of any people can be discov- 
ered readily by ascertaining the position of 
womanhood in the country under review. When 
this test is applied to India, the result is not favor- 
able to the moral and social standard maintained 
by the people in the long ages of the past, nor 
even in the light and privileges of the present day. 
The Hindu, Mohammedan, and Buddhist have 
failed to appreciate the dignity and worth of 
womanhood, and have suffered both morally and 
socially for their failure. 

The Hindu brings his wife to his father's home 
where she is under the indisputable sway of the 
mother-in-law. It is a strange fact that where 
womanhood is downtrodden and despised, the 
mother's authority is supreme over the son's wife. 
In the average Hindu home, there are three gener- 
ations — parents, sons and their wives, and the 
grandchildren. A Hindu wife is not permitted to 
eat with her husband. If they have children, the 
boys eat with the father, and after they have done, 
the mother and daughters. The wife never walks 
beside her husband, but always trudges along 
behind. These customs prevail among all classes 
of Hindus. 

The Mohammedan wife is treated not a whit 
better, and is at the caprice of her dictatorial hus- 
band. A Mohammedan usually takes his bride to 
his own home, but may and usually does have 
many wives. The wealthy have large harems in 




Brahman Sub-judge and Family 




Karen Family, Burma 



The People 



73 



which are the favorite and legitimate wives. In 
all polygamous homes, jealousy and intrigue result 
in terrible crime, and mothers sometimes destroy 
the children of their rivals in the household. 

According to Buddhism the male is considered 
far superior to the female, and her highest hope 
and prayer is that in some futiire existence she 
may be born as a man. Unlike the customs among 
the Hindus and Mohammedans, the young hus- 
band goes to live with the wife's parents. The 
wife is the burden-bearer and usually follows her 
empty-handed husband with a load on her head. 
While among the Hindus and Mohammedans the 
women are kept in the background, the Burmese 
women carry on the trade and walk the streets 
with greatest freedom, puffing their huge cigars. 

The home life of the aborigines is exceedingly 
simple. Polygamy is quite common among most 
of them, but in some cases only one wife is per- 
mitted. In monogamous households the husband, 
wife, and children occupy the rudely constructed 
hut. In some cases the older boys live in public 
houses provided for their use, and the older girls 
are often sheltered in the houses of widows. 
From necessity the v^hole family is obliged to toil 
hard for a living. Women are held in greater 
esteem than among some of the more civilized 
races of India. Old people and children are cared 
for, and, in some cases, aged men are almost 
acknowledged as patriarchs. 



Buddhist 
Married Life 



Married Life 
of Aborigines 



74 The Christian Conquest of India 

Polygamy Polygamy prevails to a great extent among all 
classes except the poorest, and rests as a social 
blight upon the people. It is more common 
among the Mohammedans than among the Hindus 
and others. In the case of the Hindu, if a son 
has been born into the family, the father does not 
usually seek a second wife, but the wife who has 
no son often becomes an object of pity to those 
who know her. The complications which some- 
times arise in a polygamous household are fre- 
quently distressing and always disgusting. 
Zenana The practice of seclusion affects only a very 
small per cent, even of the high-caste Hindu 
women. The custom probably grew out of the 
fear of Hindus that Mohammedans would steal 
their wives and daughters. Those who are behind 
the purdah often consider their lot an indication 
of aristocratic superiority, although they are 
wretchedly ignorant and may never have enjoyed 
a ride or walked outside of their gloomy quarters. 
Where Mohammedan influence does not prevail, 
women are permitted a large degree of freedom. 
Marriage a The worst misfortunc that can befall a Hindu 
Necessity ^q^^^^^^ ^g j-^ ]yQ unmarried. This idea is the result 
of the belief that a woman can have no social 
status or religious destiny apart from man. 
Hence, parents who cannot find a suitable match 
for their daughters join them in wedlock to a 
professional bridegroom who is prepared to marry 
any number for a reasonable income. 



The People 75 

Marriage is in many respects a mercenary tran- chiid Mar- 
saction and may take place when the bride is but wfd*owhood 
a helpless babe, but the marriage is legal, and if 
the husband dies the baby wife is a widow and can 
never re-marry. A widower may marry a hundred 
wives if he sees fit to do so. Many of the mar- 
riages are negotiated for business or social reasons, # 
and if one or more children are sacrificed, what 
does it matter? One of the terrible blights upon 
the home is the practice among the Hindus of 
child marriage. The census of 1901 reports nearly 
nine million child wives under fifteen years of age. 
This horrible custom often initiates the child into 
motherhood at ten years of age, which is physi- 
cally, mentally, and morally disastrous both to the 
child-mother and offspring. Much effort has been 
put forth, especially by missionaries, to make early 
marriage impossible, but the only progress made 
thus far is the passage of the "Age of Consent 
BilF in 1891, whereby the age of cohabitation was 
raised from ten to twelve. 

The widows of India numbered in 1901, 25,- Widowhood 
891,936, of whom 391,147 were under fifteen years 
of age. Some families are anxious to contract 
an alliance with a branch of caste higher than 
their own, and to do so they sacrifice a little child 
by marrying her to an old man, who receives a 
payment in money for conceding the privilege. 
Very strange relationships are created in this way. 
A Bengali gentleman, in explaining the system. 



76 The Christian Conquest of India 

once remarked that he had sixty grandmothers. 
Many of these grandmothers were probably little 
girls. The wrong that is done to these children 
pursues them through life. They are not only 
regarded, but treated, as sufferers for some wrong 
act committed by them, very possibly in a previous 
existence or incarnation. They have their heads 
shaved, are forced to sit apart from the family, 
are obliged to fast weekly, are deprived of many 
kinds of food, and are taught to regard themselves 
as victims of evil fortune. Intelligent Hindus are 
beginning to understand how base and baneful 
this custom is, and some prominent men oppose 
and denounce it with great vigor. One wealthy 
gentleman offered liberal rewards to any young 
man who would select a bride from the so-called 
widows, and in recent years several young men of 
courage have married widows in utter defiance of 
public opinion, and at the risk of public hostility 
and social ostracism. 
Widow's^ The widow's funeral pyre of tradition and his- 

tory tells the whole story of the utterly selfish and 
cruel ideal which Hinduism has long cherished 
concerning women. The faithful wife or wives 
must prove their devotion by suffering a horribly 
cruel death on the late husband's funeral pyre. In 
many parts of India the landscape is dotted with 
little temples or shrines each marking the spot 
where some wretched woman, or perhaps several of 
them, were burned with the body of a possibly 



Funeral Pyre 



The People 77 

worthless man. This was done as a tribute to 
an evidence of true wifely devotion. It will be 
said that this was owing to the dense ignorance 
of ages long passed, but it is only the strictest vigi- 
lance on the part of the authorities that prevents 
a continuance of this custom in various parts of 
India at the present time. 

The social and religious customs of the Hindu Temple Gins 
demand a large number of dancing girls, or priest- 
esses, who in infancy are dedicated to the service 
and maintenance of the temples, and are called 
"the servants of the gods.^^ They are the endowed 
ministers of the temples, and commerce with them 
is regarded as meritorious and an act of devotion 
to the idol whose brides they are. The institution 
of the nautch is based upon the example of the 
god Krishna. The nautch girls are taught in 
early childhood to read, dance, and sing, and in- 
structed in every act of seduction. The muralis 
are devoted to the god Khandoba, a deity of the 
Maratha country. They are licensed by law and 
dedicated to lives of impurity in the name of reli- 
gion. These girls are invited to the homes of 
native gentlemen on nearly all social occasions. 
They are highly respected, and without the jing- 
ling of their foot-bells a dwelling place is not 
purified. 

The separation of the people into different Many caste 
castes* has long been known to be a distinctive Divisions 

*The word caste came from the Portuguese word 
casta, meaning race. 



78 The Christian Conquest of India 

peculiarity of Hinduism. This custom is not 
only a characteristic of the social life of the people, 
but also has much to do with their religious tenets 
and usages. In the outside world it is generally 
supposed that the entire community is divided into 
only four classes or castes, but while this may have 
been the case in former days, it is by no means a 
correct idea of Hindu caste to-day. So far from 
the classes or castes being limited to four, they are 
divided and sub-divided until the student of the 
Hindu social system becomes lost in the maze of 
interminable lines of separation, all of which have 
the sanction of religion, and the infraction of any 
of which brings sure and immediate ruin to the 
transgressor. The whole system is complicated in 
the extreme, and it requires close study and care- 
ful observation on the part of strangers to be able 
to understand it. 
Origin of At the outsct it is probable that no special sanc- 

tity was attributed to the system. Four classes of 
the community were recognized by the Code of 
Manu^, and in the simple civilization of those 
remote days such a division no doubt seemed as 
harmless as it was natural. The religious leaders 
or Brahmans assumed first place and this probably 
gave a certain sanctity to the whole plan in an 
age of superstition and ignorance. The warriors, 
called Rajputs or Kshattriyas naturally took the 
second place, the agricultural class, or Vaisyas, the 

^One of the sacred books of the Hindus containing 
the laws of caste. 



The People 79 

third. The conquered non-Aryan tribes who be- 
came the serfs were called the Sudras. The divi- 
sion was not made nor recognized in a day, but 
slowly gained ground, until it at last received the 
solemn sanction of religion and became entrenched 
in the double stronghold of religion and social 
organization. Once firmly established, the spirit 
of caste rapidly took possession of the public mind, 
and began to exercise a baneful influence upon all 
classes of people. Instead of resisting the assump- 
tion of superiority on the part of the high castes, 
men in the lower ranks began to assume superior 
rights over their own inferiors, and in time the 
whole system became an elaborate plan to enable 
each rank of society to depress and even oppress 
those who chanced to be a little lower in the social 
scale. To use the illustration once given by an 
American military gentleman in Calcutta, it has 
become, "a social ladder on which every man kisses 
the feet of the man above him, and kicks the face 
of the man below him." 

A broad line of demarcation exists in India a Fifth class 
between that part of the population, on the one 
hand, which is included within the pale of the 
four castes for which India has been so long cele- 
brated, and the very large section of inhabitants 
known by various terms such as outcastes, pariahs, 
sweepers, and other similar terms, on the other. In 
Bengal the term nama-Sudra,^ which literally 

^In Southern India the name is Panchama. 



80 The Christian Conquest of India 

means sub-sudra is applied to all who occupy a 
lower social position than the four traditional 
classes which have long been incorrectly supposed 
to include all the inhabitants of India. The Su- 
dras are the lowest of the four classes and were 
once supposed to be outcastes, but as compared 
with the millions below them in the social scale, 
these people are regarded now as relatively respect- 
able. Some twenty years ago a government census 
officer in Bombay applied the term "depressed 
classes^^ to all the tribes and classes who are found 
below the line of social respectability, and this 
term has now come into general use. It includes 
nearly all who follow mechanical trades of what- 
ever kind, although these again are graded with 
great care. The shoemaker is much lower in the 
social scale than the blacksmith, while the black- 
smith is beneath the carpenter. The lowest of all 
is the sweeper, who both in city and country vil- 
lage is regarded as an utter outcast. 

Some of the principal present day rules of caste 
are as follows: 
Some (1^ Intermarriage impossible; (2) change of 

occupation forbidden; (3) only persons of the 
same caste may eat together; (4) meals must not 
be cooked except by a person of the same caste or 
by a Brahman; (5) no man of any inferior caste 
may touch the rations or enter the cook room; 
(6) no water or liquor contaminated by the touch 
of a man of inferior caste can be used — rivers. 



The People 



81 



tanks, and large bodies of water excepted ; (7) arti- 
cles of dry food are only contaminated if tliey pass 
through the hands of a man of inferior caste, but- 
tered or greased; (8) cow^s flesh, pork, fowl, and 
similar meats are prohibited; (9) an ocean voyage 
is forbidden, and the boundaries of India must 
not be crossed. 

The name of the avocation does not by any Avocation 
means correctly describe the work or occupation ^Tscrfbl 
of all the members of the caste. For instance, the occupation 
shoemakers are reported in the last census as num- 
bering 1,957,291, whereas the people belonging to 
the shoemaker caste number more than ten mil- 
lion. Large numbers of the so-called leather 
workers are farmers, and the whole community 
represents a population almost equal to that of the 
Brahmans. 

In former years it was considered an outrage Hostility 
upon the rights of the higher castes for any mem- c^^fj Peo^Te**^ 
hers of the outcasts' community to learn to read, 
or to aspire to any position regarded as the pecu- 
liar privilege of the higher castes. Even at the 
present day it sometimes happens that the people 
who consider education as a special prerogative of 
their own, will pull down or burn the humble little 
buildings in which the low caste children are 
taught. In many parts of the country, before the 
English era, the low- caste people were obliged to 
leave the road when they saw a higher caste man 
approaching. Strangest and most outrageous of 



Inconvenience 
of Caste 



82 The Christian Conquest of India 

all, low- caste women in some parts of India were 
not allowed to dress themselves with the modesty 
which natural instinct would suggest, lest they 
might seem to trench upon the privileges of the 
high- caste people. 

The following is an illustration of the inconven- 

lUustrated icncC of Castc I 

^^One day I found a man and his wife lying in 
a shed and both unconscious. The husband died 
shortly after, and as the wife showed considerable 
strength I had her removed to our plague hospi- 
tal, in order that she might receive suitable nurs- 
ing and proper care. On her arrival at the 
hospital I ordered milk to be given her, but 
on visiting her in her ward I found the milk in 
a cup by her side untouched. She made signs to 
me on my inquiry that the people who brought 
the milk were not of her caste, and therefore she 
could not take the cup out of their hands, nor 
had she strength to lift the cup from the ground 
to her lips. I raised her head myself and put pil- 
lows behind it and held the cup in my own hands, 
but she closed her eyes and gave me such a look 
that I saw I had to do something else. After 
some search I found in the hospital a woman of 
her caste taking care of a member of her family 
who was also down with the plague. I sent this 
woman to give her the milk, but the moment she 
looked in at the open door of the ward she ex- 
claimed, ^I can't touch her; she is in mourning 



The People 83 

for the dead/ and she went away. I then found 
this woman^s little girl, and by offering to bring 
her a doll when I returned the next morning I 
induced her to hold the cup to the woman's lips 
so that she might drink. But I had to stand 
outside the door while she was drinking, as I 
was an outcast myself. When I returned the 
next morning with the doll in my pocket to ful- 
fill my promise, the little girl was dead and 
buried."' 

Some of the advantages of the system are: an Merits and 
economic division of labor, the promotion of clean- f*^*^^ °J *^® 

' ^ Caste System 

liness, restraint of morals in certain directions, 
and the keeping alive of a learned class that might 
otherwise have passed out of existence. On the 
other hand, caste is a tyrannical force of the worst 
sort, every man must surrender his own individu- 
ality and submit to be bound to an ignorant com- 
munit}^ It is a source of physical degeneracy 
because it compels marriage between narrow lines 
of consanguinity. It forbids sympathy beyond 
one's particular caste. It restricts a man from 
engaging in any trade which is not presented by 
his caste custom. It chokes or strangles ambition, 
aspiration, and progress. It prohibits natural 
unity and fosters jealousy and antagonism. 

What is the secret of the distressing social con- Secret of 
ditions of the people? It is not found in the bad ^°^^^^ ^"^^' 
quality of the soil, nor in the oppression of the 

^Tfie Missionary Herald, May, 1906, 219. 



84 The Christian Conquest of India 

laborers, nor in the extortion of the tax gatherers, 
nor in the idle habits of the people. The source of 
the awful plight of the millions of this great 
empire is the same as that which accounts for the 
terrible circumstances of the great mass of the 
people in all non-Christian lands. It is sin. 
When we speak of ^^life in Christ" we use a phrase 
with a broader meaning than we at first perceive. 
Life in the spiritual realm gives renewed vitality 
to the affections, stimulates the mental powers, 
creates ambition to improve in a general way, and, 
in short, endows a community v^ith that peculiar 
stimulus which we call the spirit of improvement. 
Christian converts in India do not fail to develop 
a new ambition and desire to improve their con- 
dition. Their children are taught, old trammels 
are broken, and very many of them advance as far 
in a generation as their non-Christian neighbors 
have done in a century, or perhaps in ten centuries^ 

QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER III 

Aim: To Realize the Imperative Need of Indiait 
Society for Christianity 

I . . . The Limitations of Indian Society. 

1.* What are the influences making for popular 
separation or union in India as compared with 
the United States and Canada? Compare in 
detail, and give reasons for your views. 

2.* What is the relative likelihood in the two coun- 
tries of a new idea becoming common prop- 
erty? 



The People 85 

3. Until recent times to what extent did the in- 

vaders have any regard for the welfare of so- 
ciety in general? 

4. Why has her contact with the rest of the world 

brought so little of social progress to India? 

5.* What to your mind are the three greatest evils 
of caste? Explain your views. 

6.* Try to picture what life would become in this 
country if caste restrictions were suddenly im- 
posed? 

7.* Which of the social surroundings of Indian 
childhood should you most dread for a child 
of your own? 

8.* Give several reasons why you should object 
to having your sister brought up from child- 
hood under Hindu auspices? 

9.* State in order of importance the practical meas- 
ures you should take to alleviate the conditions 
of Hindu women. 

11... What Indian Civic Life Needs. 

10. Do you consider India ready for popular self- 
government? 
11.* What is there in Indian society to develop in- 
dividual opinion? 

12. How much education and personal development 

do you think a man ought to have before being 
allowed to vote? 

13. In what percentage of Indian society has this 
standard been attained? 

14. How broad should a man's sympathy be before 

he is allowed to vote? Why? 

15. To what extent does Indian society meet this 
requirement? 

16.* By what processes should you endeavor to fit a 
body of Indian villagers for useful citizenship? 



86 The Christian Conquest of India 

17. How should you try to secure helpful coopera- 

tion and sympathy between castes? 

18. How should you endeavor to cultivate public 
spirit? 

19.* What traits of character should public educa- 
tion in India most seek to develop? 

111. . .Inadequacy of Purely Secular Methods. 

20. Is the Hindu truly conscientious in observing 
caste restrictions? 

21.* In what spirit do you think you should ap- 
proach such conscientiousness? 

22. What has been the relation of religion to the 
prejudices and customs of the Hindu? 

23. Do you think that such customs could be suc- 
cessfully changed entirely by secular methods? 

24.* What would be the effect on character if they 
could? 

TV. ..Christianity the Only Solution. 

25.* What needs indispensable to Indian society 

would Christianity supply? 
26.* How will it effect personal initiative and the 

sense of responsibility? Indicate results 

likely to follow. 
27.* What effect will it have on public opinion? 

On national feeling? 
28. Do you see any hope for Indian society or any 

other society apart from the love of God as 

manifested in Jesus Christ? 

Refeeences foe Advanced Study. — Chapter III 
I . . . Social Life. 

Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 87-106. 
Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 23-26. 



The People 87 

Lilly: India and Its Problems, XVI. 

Stewart: Life and Work in India, VI. 

Stock: Notes on India for Missionary Students, II. 

II. . .Aboriginal Tri'bes. 
Clough: Tales of a Pariah Tribe, 1-31. 
Hunter: Brief History of the Indian Peoples, III. 
Hurst: Indika, XL 
Mitchell: In Southern India, XXV. 

III. . .Widoichood. 

Denning: Mosaics from India, V. 

Dubois and Beauchamp: Hindu Manners, Customs, 

and Ceremonies, Pt. II, Chaps. XVIII, XIX. 
Fuller: The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood, IV. 
Guinness: Across India at the Dawn of the 

Twentieth Century, XV. 
Storrow: Our Sisters in India, IX. 

lY .. .Child Marriage and Child Life. 

Fuller: The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood, III, X, 
Holcomb: Bits About India, XIII. 
Rowe: Every-day Life in India, XL 
Storrow: Our Sisters in India, V, VI. 



THE RELIGIONS 



CHAPTEE TV 
THE RELIGIONS 

The people of India might justly lay claim to a Religious 



the compliment paid by the Apostle Paul to the 
men of Athens in his first address in that city. 
They are certainl}^ very religious, and have been 
so from time immemorial. The aborigines scat- 
tered in the jungles of the land, while ignorant, 
and unable to make any statement of their reli- 
gious belief, are nevertheless possessed of various 
religious notions, while every grade and shade of 
society from these half wild people to the univer- 
sity graduates of the present day, have a distinct 
religious belief which is never concealed. Practi- 
cally this rule is universal, hence it is not diffi- 
cult for the government to obtain accurate reli- 
gious statistics, although in India, as elsewhere, 
cold figures fail to show the moral strength of the 
various sects or parties represented. The last 
census gives the following statistics : 

Jews 18,228 Animists 8,584,148 

Parsees 94,190 Buddhists 9,476,759 

Jains 1,334,148 Mohammedans. 62,458,077 

Sikhs 2,195,339 Hindus 207,147,026 

Christians 2,923,241 Others 129,900 



People 



92 The Christian Conquest of India 

Distribution "The provinces containing most of the Jews are 
e igions jgQj^i^^y^ which is the habitat of more than three 
fourths of them, Bengal, and Madras. Bombay 
is likewise the home of almost eighty-four per 
cent, of India's Parsees, making it the greatest 
stronghold of that faith in the world. Nearly half 
of the Jains are also found in Bombay, while Cen- 
tral India, and Rajputana especially, contain most 
of the remainder. The Sikhs are almost wholly 
found in their early home in the Punjab. Catholic 
and Protestant Christians are fairly well distrib- 
uted over the empire ; though if a line were drawn 
due west from Calcutta about four fifths of them 
would be found south of it, two thirds of the entire 
Christian population being in the single province 
of Madras. Bengal, Bombay, and Burma are the 
provinces coming next in the number of resident 
Christians. Holders of animistic beliefs are the 
most numerous in Assam, the Central Provinces, 
and Bengal, with a goodly number in Burma, 
Madras, and Central India. The Buddhists have 
been driven out of their original home, and are 
now almost wholly confined to Ceylon, Burma, and 
the rim of adjacent Bengal, though Kashmir, bor- 
dering on Tibet, also has some 35,000. Mohamme- 
danism is strongest in N'orth India, Bengal being 
the home of more than twenty-five millions of 
Moslems, and the Punjab standing next in order. 
Madras and Haidarabad are the two southern 
provinces having the largest number of Moslems. 



'^"If^" ^^ 




(north/ * *^ 

i-INCE ■ 






/baluchista^i' 



'■s / PUNJAB V 

T.V.' Z+,T55 \ 



,' UNITED f 

[PROVINCESJ^^ 



^ts&T^i^^^ ,^5^7*1^-' \"cai^fT'r*\i% e '■ ' 

J>-yn Ot--, «^, b tCENXSjAj^lNtllA'-?'?, 

-^'''^^BOMBAYToa1hs"I.m«lws-si2.9 <U K ^"^ 
-> »\ '.p^'s's i.cbr15tians..s 1 ,<•» 

\0D<. <;^-' CENTRA^L PROVINCES '/^..^ 
Vy^HAIDARABAD \ 

*^l*."5 Jo 

BOMBAYi'^JJi^jl^j',, 



The Eeliofions 



93 



Religions 



Of all religionists the Hindus are by far the 
most ubiqiiitons, abounding in all sections except 
Burma, Baluchistan, and Kashmir, where either 
Buddhism or Mohammedanism is so prevalent. 
Madras, the United Provinces, and Bengal have 
the largest number of Hindus/^ ^ 

Taking one thousand natives, and selecting Proportion 
them from the different religions, the proportion ° * igiomsts 
will be as follows: Hindus, 704; Mohammedans, 
212 ; Buddhists, 32 ; Animists, 29 ; Christians, 10 ; 
Sikh, 7 J/2 ; Jains, 4!/2. The remaining one in the 
thousand includes the Parsees, Jews, and others. 

From the preceding statistics it is evident that Great 
the great native religions of India are Hinduism, 
Mohammedanism, and Buddhism. On this account 
the minor faiths will receive less attention. The 
followers of Judaism are so few in number that 
they lose significance and will not receive further 
comment. 

The Parsees are the merchant princes, bank- Parsees 
ers, and financial operators of the empire; while 
they are nearly all located in Bombaj^ and its en- 
virons, there is scarcely a city of note in Arabia, 
Baluchistan, and Burma where they are not rep- 
resented commercially. They are known for their 
integrity, generosity, and progressiveness. About 
seventy-five per cent, of them are literate, and they 
eagerly accept educational advantages. ]^umber- 
ing less than 100,000 people, the Parsees have made 

^Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 109. 



94 The Christian Conquest of India 

more stir in the world than any other sect in pro- 
portion to their population.. They are the residue 
of one of the world's oldest religions, Zoroastri- 
anism^ and were driven from Persia to India in 
the seventh century by the fierce persecutions of 
the Mohammedans. It is thought that Hinduism 
and Zoroastrianism had a common origin, but the 
former has swung far from the original tenets of 
Dualism and Monotheism to idolatry and Pan- 
theism."^ The faith of the Parsee is one of the 
purest of ethnic religions. Their distinguishing 
theory is Dualism. They are monotheists, and be- 
lieve that in the beginning the Eternal, Supreme, 
and Infinite One produced two other divine spirits, 
the Spirit of Good and the Spirit of Evil, or the 
Spirit of Light and the Spirit of Darkness. They 
believe in the resurrection and equality of all 
beings before God. Their chief object of worship 
is fire, and water is almost as sacred. 
Jains Of the nine religious divisions of the empire 
the Jains occupy the seventh place in number. Un- 
der the leadership of a Buddhist priest^ they broke 
away from Buddhism about a thousand years ago, 
and in a Buddhist country would not attract much 

^Zoroaster, the founder, whose followers were fire 
worshipers, lived about 3,000 B. C. 

^Monotheism, believing in the existence of one 
divine principle or one God; Dualism, of two such 
principles, or two gods, the one good and the other 
evil; Pantheism, the view that all is divine, or that 
God is in everything. 

=Some authorities claim that Jainism was a revolt 
against Hinduism contemporaneous with Buddhism. 



The Religions 95 

attention as a distinct religious body. Like the 
Buddhists they deny the authority and infallibil- 
ity of the Vedas,"- but on the other hand they 
observe the rules of caste and worship some of the 
Hindu deities. They are wealthy, intelligent, and 
in some respects progressive, but their chief pecu- 
liarity is their abnormal regard for life, whether 
of man, beast, bird, or insect. They are noted for 
the hospitals which they maintain for animals, ir 
which cats, dogs, decrepit horses, diseased cows, 
and insects are found, and are regarded as equally 
sacred because possessed of the principle of life. 
In the Bombay papers a report of the admissions 
to these hospitals is sometimes published, and in 
like manner a list of those animals discharged as 
cured. Snakes are not excluded, but children are 
not admitted. It is said that even vermin are tol- 
erated and protected. And yet these people are 
above the average in India in point of intelligence, 
and are reckoned among the progressive classes. 

The Sikhs number 3,195,339 souls. Although sikhs 
originally they separated from Mohammedanism, 
they are gradually being absorbed by Hinduism. 
Their founder, a religious teacher named Nanak, 
lived about four hundred years ago, and gathered 
around him a band of disciples, somewhat after the 
fashion of the founder of Buddhism. He rejected 
caste and idol worship, and his followers are 
tolerant toward other religions. Their men are 

^Sacred books of Hinduism. 



96 The Christian Conquest of India 

among the best soldiers in India, and are found at 
all English settlements along the seacoast, from 
Calcutta to Shanghai. Living among these Sikhs 
are many low-caste people who have adopted more 
or less of their religious ideas and practices, and 
are known as Mazabi-Sikhs, that is, Sikhs in reli- 
gion. The main body constitutes a race as well as 
a religious sect, and in many respects they are 
more favorable to the work of the Christian mis- 
sionary than the Hindus and Mohammedans. 
Animism Among the followers of the different religions 
mentioned in the census table, about eight and one 
half millions are Animists. The aboriginal tribes 
represented by this faith in Bengal, Madras, 
and the Central Provinces are the Santals, 
Bhils, and Gonds; in Assam the Garos, Khasis, 
and ]N"agas; in Burma the Chins, Kachins, and 
Karens. The seven characteristic tenets that may 
be generally though not universally ascribed to 
Animism are : ( 1 ) "A supreme, or at least a supe- 
rior Being is acknowledged though scarcely wor- 
shiped; (2) other spirits are also acknowledged, 
which are almost malignant and have to be pro- 
pitiated; (3) bloody offerings are necessary, as at 
least a part of the propitiation; (4) wild dances 
are performed in the worship; (5) little impor- 
tance is attached to idols, temples, or priests; 
(6) possession by spirits is believed in; (7) witch- 
craft is much practiced."^ 
^Mitchell, The Great ReUgions of India, 252. 



The Eeliffions 97 



Buddhism 

Buddhism took its rise in India about five^ centn- Gautama 
ries before Christ, and in the empire is now almost 
wholly confined to Burma. According to all 
accounts Hinduism had reached a state of degra- 
dation as well as of tyranny, when a reform was 
inaugurated by the founder of Buddhism, Gau- 
tama, who was a prince of some note. He led an 
ordinary life until he suddenly became impressed 
with the conviction that he had a mission to per- 
form in the world. He deserted his throne, 
adopted austere habits of life, and became a wan- 
dering teacher among the people of the land. A.^ 
he denounced Brahmanism with great freedom 
and preached against the trammels of caste, he 
quickly gained popularity and made rapid prog- 
ress in winning converts. 

Ancient Buddhism, however, was very different Reasons 
from that of later years, or of the present day. ^°^ success 
As popularly known, it was simply a protest 
against Brahmanism. It did not reject caste, but 
it ignored it by appealing to all on equal terms. 
It made light of religious austerities, and rejected 
the elaborate ceremonies of the Brahmans. It 
spoke in the language of the common people, and 
in contrast with Brahmanism it must have seemed 
liberal indeed. It made much of the ills of the 
present life, which all keenly feel, and held out 
the hope of final escape from earthly woes by 

^Monier Williams, Buddhism, 21. 



V 



98 The Christian Conquest of India 

entering the state of Nirvana^ beyond which there 
can be no further birth, if indeed any further 
existence.- — ' 

Decline It is a siugular fact that no historian has ever 

been able to tell the story of the decline and faU 
of Buddhism in India. It rose to great powei^ 
^ sent missionaries to other lands, and as a great 

missionary religion proved notably successful. In 
fact it won its way into China, Tibet, Burma, and 

X all the countries of southeastern Asia, until it 

became numerically the leading religion of the 
world. But while holding its ground in other 
lands, it failed to maintain its position in India. 
The quiet manner in which Buddhism was so com- 
pletely supplanted in India by the competing 
system of Hinduism would make a unique chap- 
ter in religious history, if the facts could be 
gathered from authentic records; but this is now 
impossible, and the slow process by which the 
change was affected must probably remain a mat- 
ter of intelligent conjecture. 

Divisions of^'-^^ndian Buddhism during the third century 

juddhism ^ Q^^ divided into two sections ; known as north- 
ern and southern respectively; the former has its 
headquarters in Tibet and the latter in Ceylon. 
The southern school prevails in Ceylon, Burma, 
and Siam. 
Teachings It is difficult at this great distance of time to 
determine with accuracy what the great leader 
Regarded as tlie end of all personal existence. 



H 

n 
B 

rT 




03 



O 





^^31 








•^^^^^^^SSHiHIHi^^aniS^^B 




|> 


Ip, 


M^lf 



The Eeligions 



99 



Gautama actually taught, and it is probable that 
many teachings popularly attributed to him really 
belonged to leaders of a more recent date. The 
following statement throws much light upon the 
whole doctrine of Buddha: "First, all existence 
— that is, existence in any form, whether on earth 
or in heavenly spheres — necessarily involves pain 
and suffering. Second, all suffering is caused by 
lust, or craving, or desire, of three kinds : for sen- 
sual pleasure, for wealth, for existence. Third, 
cessation of suffering is simultaneous with extinc- 
tion of lust, craving, and desire. Fourth, extinc- 
tion of lust, craving, and desire, and cessation of 
suffering are accomplished by perseverance in the 
noble, eightfold path, namely: right beliefs or 
views, right resolve, right speech, right work, 
right livelihood, right exercise or training, right 
mindfulness, right mental concentration."^ 

Some of the excellent moral precepts of Buddha 
are: (1) Do not kill; (2) Do not steal; (3) Do 
not lie; (4) Do not commit adultery; (5) Drink 
no strong drink; (6) Exercise charity; (7) Be 
pure; (8) Be patient; (9) Be courageous; 
(10) Be contemplative; (11) Seek after knowl- 
edge. 

The Buddhist believes that he has passed 
through countless existences as man, animal, or 
insect. This numberless series of transmigrations 
may be ascending or descending. '^ Karma, the 

^Monier Williams, Buddhism, 43, 44. 



Moral 
Precepts 



Nirvana 
or Neikban 



100 The Christian Conquest of India 

resultant force of all his past actions, brings into 
existence a new being whose state is happy or 
miserable according to the desert, good or evil, 
embodied in that resultant force/^^ This teaching 
denies all previous identity and heredity. In 
Buddhism salvation means an escape from exist- 
ence, which is considered as full of evil and suffer- 
ing, through the noble eightfold path mentioned 
above. In other words salvation can be obtained 
only by gaining merit through a meaningless wor- 
ship at the pagoda,'' obeying the commandments of 
Buddha, and through intellectual attainment. The 
highest attainment which Buddhism holds out to 
its followers is Nirvana, in Burmese NeiJcban, 
which means extinction of both the spiritual and 
physical or utter annihilation. Neikban expressed 
in a milder form is that state of impossible exist- 
ence in which there is neither sensation nor con- 
scious life, or as they fittingly describe it, *^a flame 
which has been blown out.^^ According to their 
teachings, Gautama, having attained this condi- 
tion of Nirvana has wholly disappeared from the 
world. 

Before the entrance of Buddhism into Burma, 
the Burmans and Talaings, like the surrounding 
tribes, worshiped nats, demons, or spirits, with 
supernatural powers. The reigning king becoming 
a convert, decreed that all his subjects must wor- 

^Cushing, in Religions of Mission Fields, 107. 
^Buddhist temple of worship. 



The Eeligions 



101 



ship at the pagoda or be put to death. But the peo- 
ple refused to obey, so the king had a nat-sin, 
spirit-house, constructed near the pagoda and in 
this way induced the people to transfer their wor- 
ship from the nat-sin to the substantial and visible 
pagoda. It must not be understood that the Bur- 
mans have completely forsaken animism, because 
there are many evidences that they have simply 
added Buddhism to their spirit-worship. The 
majority of the people constantly live in awful 
fear lest some evil spirit may bring disaster, and 
Nagas, dragon-like reptiles, are dreaded by nearly 
all of the Burmese. 

It has sometimes been asserted that the moral 
code of Buddha rivals that of Christ, and that 
Buddhism expresses high moral ideals cannot be 
denied. However, to obtain a correct estimate of 
any teaching it is necessary to study the lives of 
its exponents. One of the cardinal command- 
ments is, "Thou shalt not take the life of any liv- 
ing thing.^' 

This commandment forbids exceptions even in 
self-defense and equalizes in penalty the taking 
of human life and that of the smallest insect. But 
the Burmans in destroying life in war have always 
found it convenient to obtain absolution by resort- 
ing to the doctrine of "merit." ^ Moreover, large 
numbers of them are making their living by fish- 
ing, which is a life-taking business. 

^The belief that offerings at pagodas will absolve sin. 



High 
Moral Code 



Preservation 
of Life 



102 The Christian Conquest of India 

Truthfulness Another commandment is, "Thou shalt speak no 
false word/' As a result of such a commandment 
one would naturally expect some truthfulness 
among Buddhists, but thus far it has not been dis- 
covered, and few Europeans place any reliance 
upon the promise of a heathen Burman. To show 
the looseness of the interpretation of their com- 
mandments, their "Sacred Book'' gives this defini- 
tion of a falsehood : "A statement constitutes a lie, 
when discovered by the person to whom it is told 
to be untrue."^ These examples of the gulf be- 
tween teaching and practice are sufficient to show 
the failure of Buddhism in the moral life of the 
people. 
Benefits and Buddhism procIaims equality and social freedom 
Buddhism ^^ ^^^' ^Jastc does not exist, and any man may rise 
to the highest position. Women are accorded full 
rights in business and society. But Buddhism 
knows no God in any real sense, and is practically 
atheistic. It believes personal existence in itself 
to be a source of evil, and hence can have no real 
hope of conscious immortality. It takes a wholly 
pessimistic view of life. It teaches men to trust 
in their own efforts wholly, and to look for no help 
from without. It exacts works of merit and bur- 
dens its votaries with useless duties. It ignores 
praj^er and knows nothing of faith, hope, or love. 
It is merely a religion of the intellect and has 
failed to elevate the moral life of its followers. 

^Cochrane, Among the Burmans, 124. 



\f' 



The Eeligions 103 

Christianity advocates all of the moral virtues contrasted 
of Buddhism and fills up the awful desolation of T^}^^ ^. ., 

^ Christianity i 

Buddhism with a living personal God. Christian- a ^\f. 

ity has a Saviour, Buddhism casts each individual 

upon his own helplessness. Christianity is a \ V / 

revelation of hope. Buddhism a religion of despair. I-' /^ 

Gautama offers only death, Christ offers life and 

immortality. 

Mohammedanism 

The former faiths are insignificant in a general Vigor of mo- 
statement of the religious situation in India 
to-day. To the popular mind there are two reli- 
gions — the Hindu and the Mohammedan. One 
fifth of the people of the empire, a number greater 
than the population of Germany, are followers of 
the False Prophet. India has more Mohamme- 
dans within its borders than any other country, 
and to-day more than one half of the Mohamme- 
dan world is under Christian rule or protection. . 
Mohammedanism is the most modern of all reli- 
gions, and does not confine itself to any one race. 
Its adherents in India are physically more sturdy 
and vigorous than their neighbors and display 
unusual qualities of leadership. They are proud . 
of their race and religion, and are more independ- 
ent and influential than the Hindus. 

Mohammedanism was brought into India in invasion 
714 A. D., by the invading armies from the north- medanism' 
west, and neither made an impression on the pub- 



104 The Christian Conquest of India 



Four Sects 



Is Moham< 
medanism 
Growing 
Rapidly? 



lie mind nor gained a foothold until the invading 
hosts began to form permanent settlements in the 
land. No missionaries accompanied or followed 
the invaders, and the work of conversion was as 
Tinlike that of the Buddhists as it possibly could 
have been. In many cases the naked sword served 
as an argument, while in a different manner 
rewards became a force among people who have 
always appreciated positions of respectability and 
honor. The invaders were ignorant of the Indian 
languages, and it was absolutely necessary for them 
to secure a large staff of assistants who belonged 
to the soil, and who were thoroughly conversant 
with the languages, ideas, usages, and modes of 
thought of the people. Then, as now, the mass of 
the people were extremely poor, and it is easy to 
imagine what the effect must have been when it 
was announced that none but converts would be 
admitted into public office. 

It is commonly supposed that Islam is a homo- 
geneous religion, and not rent by factions. Among 
the many divisions the four principal schools of 
thought in India are the Sunnites, ShiaJis, Waha- 
his, and the modern school of freethinkers, among 
whom Sir Saiyid Ahmad was the most influential 
advocate of all teachings that promote progress 
and enlightenment. 

A comparative statistical study of Mohamme- 
danism during the last two decades will allay the 
fears of many in regard to its rapid extension 



The Eeligions 105 

through the empire. Between the years 1881 and 
1891 Mohammedanism increased 14.3 per cent., 
and during the decade preceding 1901, 8.9 per 
cent. At the same time the population of the 
country increased from 1881 to 1891, 13.1 per 
cent., and from 1891 to 1901, 2.5 per cent. 
Mohammedanism is not keeping pace with Chris- 
tianity, which increased during the decade pre- 
vious to 1901, 27.9 per cent, 

Mohammedan doctors divide religion into two Religion 
parts — the dogmatic and the practical. Two Pans 

Under the former comes what must be believed 
concerning God, angels, the sacred oracles, the 
prophets, the resurrection, the judgment, and 
predestination. 

The practical part consists of five pillars or foun- 
dations, namely: (1) The recital of the Kalima or 
creed; (2) Five times of daily prayer; before sun- 
rise, at noon, before sunset, after sunset, and when 
night sets in. All prayers are recited in fixed forms 
of Arabic words; (3) The thirty days' fast, that is, 
during the month of Ramazan; (4) Almsgiving; 
(5) Pilgrimage to Mecca." ^ 

The Mohammedan creed is brief and bald, creed 
"There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is 
his prophet." "The divine unity making, uphold- 
ing, governing, perfecting all things, is the rock 
on which Mohammed builds. The consciousness 

^Mitchell, The Great Religions of India, 223. 



106 The Christian Conquest of India 



Benefits 
of Moham- 
medanism 



Evils of Mo- 
hammedanism 



of dependence upon the Absolute and Eternal is 

the keynote of Islam/^^ 

It must be admitted that Mohammedanism has 
some truth and has been a successful missionary 
religion among several races. It has raised some 
of the wild tribes above their barbarous customs 
of devil worship, human sacrifice, infanticide, and 
witchcraft, and has inculcated the idea of mono- 
theism. During the period of the Mogul emperors 
its leaders contributed some of the finest architec- 
ture in the world. It infused a more vigorous 
element into the national character, gave the peo- 
ple the broadening conception of a great Indian 
empire, and relieved its followers of the fetters of 
the caste system. It is a distinct advance beyond 
Buddhism and Hinduism in that it opposes pan- 
theism, polytheism, atheism, idolatry, and trans- 
migration of souls. 

The Moslem conception of God is "the worst 
form of monotheism which has ever existed."^ 
God is an absolute sovereign who knows no love or 
mercy. There is no escaping from the will of God 
and every Moslem must be resigned and obedient. 
In short, it is fatalism of the most heinous type. 
To the drowning man Mohammed says, "It is the 
will of God.^^ The Mohammedan idea of immor- 
tality is a blurred vision of sensual delights, and 



^Lilly, India and Its Pro'blems, 145. 
^Quoted by Mason, Lux Christi, 52. 



The Eeligions 107 



its code of morals is a mixture of ancient Judaism 
and Arabian heathenism tainted by Hinduism. Its 
spirit is hostile to progress, and intolerant in the 
extreme. As a rule it is opposed to modern educa- 
tion, and in literacy its people are below all of the 
faiths except the animistic. The Koran^ is full of 
errors and superstitions, permits falsehood, and 
perpetuates slavery, polygamy, divorce, and the 
degradation of womanhood. While it may elevate 
races to a certain point, it petrifies them there and 
almost hopelessly impedes any further advance. 
The Moslems divorce morals from religion. In 
writing of the sensuality of Mohammedanism, Dr. 
Zwemer, who is one of the foremost authorities, 
says: "On this topic it is not possible to speak 
plainly nor to be wholly silent. One must live 
among Moslems to feel the blasting influence of 
this side of Islam on its followers.^' ^ 

Mohammedanism believes in a God who is contrasted 
above, relentless and immovable; Christianity be- chdstianit 
lieves in a God who is within, full of mercy and 
tenderness. To the Mohammedan prayer is 
stereotyped praise ; to the Christian it is commun- 
ion with a Father of love. As a remedy for sin 
Mohammedanism offers fatalism; Christianity, 
redemption. The hope of the Mohammedan is in 
a prophet; the hope of the Christian is in a 
Saviour. 

^The Scriptures of the Moslems. 
-Zwemer, in Religions of Mission Fields, 258. 



108 The Christian Conquest of India 



Hinduism 



A Mighty 
Problem 



Historical 
Development 



Sacred 
Literature 



Among the religions systems of India, Hindu- 
ism bulks the largest. Its adherents include more 
than two thirds of the people of the empire, and 
it is safe to state that it has more or less colored 
every faith in the country except Christianity. 
The bond which unites the Hindu is caste. It is 
both a social and a religious bond, and, strangely 
enough, though it unites them it also keeps them 
apart. 

The early Aryans, who crossed the Indus and 
established themselves in what is now called the 
Punjab, were not worshipers of idols, and so far as 
can be known from their writings which have come 
down to us, were men of a much higher plane of 
thought than was common in that far-off age of 
the world. By slow degrees as they penetrated 
sou1:h and east, the more intelligent invaders 
became gradually involved in the degrading prac- 
tices which they found among the peoples of the 
land which they had conquered. Changes of this 
kind move slowly and cannot be effected even in 
the course of a century. Very many long years 
must have elapsed while the system now known as 
Hinduism was taking shape, and in what way the 
changes were effected can now be only a matter of 
conjecture. 

As early as 200 B. C, two alphabets, or written 
characters, were used in India. The Brahmans, 



PRINCIPAL RACES AND RELIGIONS OF INDIA 




Tk>.Eamb«^ a„^„fU„^ 



The Religions 109 

however, preferred to hand down their holy learn- 
ing rather than write it, so it remained unwritten 
until the fifteenth century after Christ. Although 
the sacred writings are now in print, it must be 
borne in mind that ninety per cent, of the people 
have no knowledge of them whatever. The Rig- 
Veda is the oldest and most important book and is 
considered the transcendent authority of the Hindu 
religion. It is a collection of ten hundred and 
seventeen hymns chiefly addressed to the gods. It 
is a memorial, accounting the victorious march 
of the Aryan race through Kabul to the Punjab. 
The Yajur Veda is a later production and 
mainly liturgical. The Sama Veda is ceremonial 
in character. The Atharva Veda is the most 
recent in origin of the four and contains a 
multitude of incantations. The Code of Manu is 
the chief authority in Hindu jurisprudence and 
contains the laws of caste. In addition to the above 
there are the Upanishads and Sutras^ the philo- 
sophical productions of the Brahmans, and the 
great epic poems Ramayana and Mahahharata. 
The Pur anas were probably composed during the 
seventh and eighth centuries A. D., and exhibit 
the degeneration of the religion into the grossest 
polytheism. The Tantras — probably the latest 
productions — are similar to the Puranas and "set 

^A few years ago portions of the Yajur Veda were 
published, but the government was obliged to punish 
the producers on the ground of having violated the 
law against obscene literature. 



110 The Christian Conquest of India 



Variety 

of "Worship 



Animistic 
Survivals 



forth the principles of the obscene and horrible 
SaJcti worship."^ 

Hinduism does not represent any distinct sys- 
tem or doctrine, settled form of worship, or code 
of morals. The average middle-class Hindu in his 
every-day life may worship any one or many of the 
following: (1) Mere stocks and stones and unus- 
ual local configurations; (2) Things inanimate, 
which are gifted with mysterious motion ; (3) Ani- 
mals which are feared; (4) Tools and visible 
things, animate or inanimate, which are directly 
or indirectly useful and profitable; (5) Deo, or 
spirit, the vague impersonation of an uncanny sen- 
sation that comes over one at certain places; 

(6) Dead relatives and other deceased persons, 
who had a great reputation during life, or who 
died in some strange or notorious way at shrines; 

(7) Manifold demigods or subordinate deities; 

(8) The supreme gods of Hinduism, and of their 
ancient incarnations and personifications, handed 
down b}^ the Brahmanic scriptures/ The above 
category includes theism, pantheism, polytheism, 
fetichism, nature worship, animal worship, demon 
worship, hero worship, and ancestor worship. 

Although Hinduism has a multitude of beliefs, 
and is rent by many sects, there are seven^ articles 
of faith on which there is a degree of unity. 

^Janvier, in Religions of Mission Fields, 56. 
*Lyall, Asiatic Studies, 7. 

'For the classification of common beliefs, the 
author is indebted to Wilkin's Modern Hinduism. 



The Eeligions 



111 



Belief 
in Purity 



Innumerable 
Incarnations 



"God is one and without a second" is a common Divine unity 
expression among the people. He created the 
heavens, and earth, and all men regardless of race 
or color. God is so great that he cannot be ex^ 
pressed by any one being, so he is manifested in 
numberless incarnations. 

To the attributes usually ascribed to the Deity 
by Christians the Hindus make no objection. 
They believe that it is only when God is incarnated 
in some being that he becomes degraded, and 
because of his superior wisdom and power, his 
capacity for doing evil is increased beyond that of 
any ordinary individual. 

Believing in millions of incarnations, they have 
no difficulty in adding any number of gods. When- 
ever a teacher displays unusual power, they imme- 
liately consider him an incarnation. Thus they 
admitted Buddha into their pantheon, and would 
readily accept Christ as another incarnation, if the 
Christians did not claim that he is supreme. 

Maya means illusion and is one of their f unda- belief in Maya 
mental doctrines of philosophy. The common 
belief is that everything in the world emanated 
from God, and that he can withdraw all into him- 
self at any time. Men may think that they are 
different from God, but that is all Maya or illu- 
sion. The highest wisdom is to realize one's one- 
ness with God, and when this is attained there is 
union with the divine spirit. The devotees are 
examples of men trying to overcome this illusion. 



112 The Christian Conquest of India 



Pantheism 



Trans- 
migration 



Fate 



Philosophical 
Systems 



God is everywhere and everything. God is in 
everyone. Man's acts are not his own, but are 
compelled by God. Sin therefore is not sin, be- 
cause God induces men to do right and wrong. 
Because God is everywhere and is so much stronger, 
man must do as God desires. This is one of the 
most pernicious beliefs, because it destroys all free- 
dom and moral responsibility. 

The human soul is reborn into the world for 
further trial either in a better or a worse condi- 
tion. A soul may reappear in a plant, a mineral, 
an animal, or in an exalted or degraded human 
form. 

A few days after an infant is born it is believed 
that the Deity sketches the career on the forehead 
of the child ; hence everything that comes to pass 
during the lifetime of a person is inevitable, and 
the pious Hindu satisfies himself by meekly saying 
"It is written." During illness physicians are not 
employed nor medicines used because they would 
be of no avail if it is decreed that the patient is to 
die. 

Some reference to the six philosophical systems 
of Hinduism may be expected by readers of this 
brief sketch, but any explanation of these would 
be impossible in this short chapter. Such a 
description would have to deal with questions of 
philosophy rather than religion. In fact these sys- 
tems hardly affect the modern religious situation 
at all, although appeals to some philosophical 



The Eeligions 113 

tenet are sometimes made in the course of a reli- 
gious discussion; but to the ordinary Hindu they 
have little meaning. 

The well-known belief of the Hindus in a sacred Hindu Triad 
triad, known as Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the 
Preserver, and 8hiva the Destroyer, has led many 
to suppose that the Christian doctrine of a trinity 
is faintly reflected in this feature of Hinduism; 
but a close examination of the Hindu system 
quickly dispels this idea. There is no real unity 
in the Hindu trinity. It is a triad, but not a trin- 
ity. Vishnu and Shiva are often represented as 
antagonistic ; and bitter, long-standing feuds have 
often occurred between the votaries of the two 
deities. Because of the multitude of gods, the 
people have an opportunity to select, hence nearly 
every section of India has its favorite ones. As a 
rule Vishnu is the most popular god in the north, 
and Shiva has most of his devotees in the south. 

Brahma, the so-called Creator, stands wholly in Comparative 
the background in the popular mind. He is sel- of°God"*^ 
dom worshiped and has but few avowed followers. 
Vishnu, the Preserver, is brought into great prom- 
inence by his numerous incarnations, and is prob- 
ably the most popular of the triad. Shiva, 
however, is the most universally revered, probably 
owing to the fact that in some of his forms he 
becomes an object of terror to his votaries, and 
fear added to superstition is a great motive power 
in the Hindu mind. 



114 The Christian Conquest of India 
Vishnu Of the ten principal incarnations of Vishnu, the 



as Krishna 



last is yet to come. The most popular incarnation 
is the eighth Krishna. He is a mixed character, 
conceived of the people as a warlike prince, a 
licentious cowherd, and a supreme deity. The story 
of Krishna's life is one of the most debasing, and 
the people admit that the incidents are abomina- 
ble, but as a god he could do no wrong. ^'He has 
been characterized as the incarnation of lust, and 
is said to have had 16,100 wives and 180,000 
sons." 
Shiva Shiva, first known as destroyer, then as repro- 
ducer, is in his fourth form a demon rather 
than a god, bears the name of Bhairava, wears 
garlands of serpents, and a string of skulls for a 
necklace, and in every respect forms as repul- 
sive and malignant a character as the Oriental 
mind can depict. He appears in still another form 
as a mountain god, fond of pleasure, devoted 
to dancing and drinking, and surrounded by a 
troup of dwarfs. In this last character his wor- 
ship is the most degrading and immoral known in 
India. 
K^ Each god has one or more wives who are wor- 
shiped. The wife of Shiva is known by different 
names, the most popular of which is Kali. In 
this character she excels her husband in her love 
of wanton destruction, and her image is perhaps 
as revolting an object as can be found anywhere 
in the world. "She is represented as a black 




Brahr 



Kali 




Hanuman Ganesha 

Four Indian Deities 



The Eeligions 115 

■woman with four arms. In one hand she has a 
weapon, in another the giant she has slain; with 
the two others she is encouraging her worshipers. 
For earrings she has two dead bodies ; she wears a 
necklace of skulls. Her only clothing is a girdle 
made of dead men^s hands, and her tongue pro- 
trudes from her mouth. Her eyes are red as 
those of a drunkard, and her breasts are smeared 
with blood. She stands with one foot on the thigh 
and the other on the breast of her husband.^^^ 

India has a multitude of minor deities, the most Minor Deities 
popular of whom is Ganesha, the god of wisdom, 
invoked by persons beginning anything new and 
by students before their examinations. The 
monkey-god Hanuman is also a great favorite. 
Not satisfied with gods and goddesses, there are 
temples, shrines, idols, and other objects of wor- 
ship, until it is stated by some that they number 
330,000,000. 

It is not a pleasing task to give an account of cruei 
practices which belong to the Hinduism of the Practices 
present day, which are sometimes revolting in cru- 
elty, or ridiculous in absurdity, or painful in suf- 
fering imposed for imaginary purposes. Mention 
was made in the last chapter of the abominable 
custom of burning widows with the dead bodies of 
their husbands, but to tliis may be added many 
other practices, some of which are shockingly 

^Quoted by Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 
130. 



116 The Christian Conquest of India 

repulsive. Only a few years ago the writer wit- 
nessed a spectacle of incredible voluntary torture 
which he has often wished could be banished from 
his memory. A number of men were being 
escorted by friends to a shrine some miles distant, 
where they were to exhibit themselves as living 
evidences of the fact that they had fulfilled certain 
vows made during the previous year. The friends 
who accompanied them sometimes assisted them 
by sprinkling water on them, or fanning them 
while they walked in the burning sun. Each of 
these wretched creatures had his tongue drawn 
out as far as possible, and kept in that position by 
an iron spike several inches long which passed 
directly through it. Their naked breasts and 
backs had a number of broad steel hooks passing 
through the skin and muscles. There were prob- 
ably a dozen of these in each breast, and the same 
number on each back. On their feet they were 
wearing shoes with sharp nails driven through the 
soles in such a way as to inflict frightful torture 
at every step. They seemed to be almost exhausted 
and yet had several miles farther to walk before 
they could reach the temple. The whole exhibi- 
tion was simply horrible, and it required a very 
great effort to look at them at all. Of course it 
will be said that this was exceptional, but never- 
theless it was a part of Hinduism, or at least of 
present-day Hinduism. If the authorities had 
knovm of it^ no doubt the spectacle would have 



of ln( 




Manager and Priests of Hindu Temple, Rameswaram, India 




Buddhist Priest Instructing a Class of Boys, Burma 



The Eeligions 



117 



Attitude of 



been prohibited, but in the eyes of many of the 
Hindus this would have amounted to an unwar- 
rantable interference with religious liberty. The 
devotees with arms held aloft till they become 
shrunken, and no longer obey the will of the suf- 
ferer, can still be seen at many of the great fairs 
in different parts of the country. 

It would be doing a great injustice to the intelli- 
gent classes of the Hindu people to hold them Hindus 
responsible for all the degrading elements which 
are found in the popular Hinduism of to-day. 
Literally millions of Hindus, and especially young 
men who have received a modern education, are 
ready to repudiate all the more degrading ele- 
ments of their religion, and yet they cling to their 
system as a whole with extraordinary tenacity. 
The pressure of the caste system is chiefly respon- 
sible for their persistence in adhering to it. They 
are men not often noted for their personal courage, 
either physical or moral, and are not strong 
enough for the trial which a vigorous repudiation 
of the system would cost them. 

It would be a very great mistake to state that Hinduism 
Hinduism as a religion is in a dying condition. ReHgion^'"^ 
That it is losing ground no careful observer can 
doubt, but it still retains a large measure of vigor- 
ous life, and many long years will probably elapse 
before it ceases to be one of the great religions of 
the earth. None the less, as a system it has the 
sentence of death pronounced upon it, and it 



118 The Christian Conquest of India 

cannot permanently hold the position which it 
has long maintained in the face of advancing 
intelligence and the modern era. The people of 
India are rapidly emerging out of the darkness of 
ages into the light of present-day civilization, and 
the missionaries of India ask for nothing more 
than simply to let the Light of the World break 
through all obscuring hindrances and shine freely 
upon the people of the empire. 
Benefits and i^ would be wroug to concludc that Hinduism 
Hinduism is wholly of the devil, and that a loving Father has 
left these myriads without a witness. To acknowl- 
edge this would admit the supremacy of the evil 
one. It is not generous but just to believe that the 
Hindus are seeking God, but to them he is afar 
off and unapproachable. At some points in their 
faith the light of heaven almost breaks through. 
N'evertheless, the fair-minded reader who seeks 
for virtues and elements of strength in Hinduism 
has a most difficult task. Theoretically, Hinduism 
suggests the unity of God and the solidity of man, 
but practically it destroys these ideals by its gross 
idolatry and its benumbing caste system. How- 
ever, it may be said, with some degree of safety, 
that it emphasizes the sanctity of life, the cultiva- 
tion of the passive virtues of patience, gentleness, 
and submission, and introduces religion into every- 
day life. But Hinduism has robbed man of a per- 
sonal God, and defaced the distinction between 
right and wrong. It has obliterated freedom of 



The Eeligions 119 

will through the fatalism that results from trans- 
migration. The blighting effects of the caste sys- 
tem, the degradation and religious prostitution of 
womanhood, the corruption of the priesthood, the 
lust and immorality of the gods and goddesses, 
and its other vices, stamp Hinduism as one of the 
foulest, if not the foulest religion that the world 
has seen. 

To the Christian the universe and man are contrasted 
real; to the Hindu, illusion. Christianity repre- Christianity 
sents God as seeking man; Hinduism represents 
man as seeking God. Christianity offers salvation 
from sin and the elevation of character ; Hinduism 
offers only the annihilation of personality. Hin- 
duism, in striking contrast to Christianity, per- 
petuates pessimism, bondage, intolerance, retro- 
gression, and the demoralization of womanhood. 
Judged by its moral results, Hinduism is over- 
whelmingly bad. 

Before closing this chapter some mention must Religious 
be made of the devotees of India, a class of the 
community for which India has become famous. 
They are found in great numbers and represent 
various castes of Hindus as well as of Mohamme- 
dans. Some of them are professedly saints, some 
are sages, and many of them are scoundrels, 
although the last-named do not make a profession 
of their calling. All classes either reverence or 
fear these men, and their influence is very great. 
Most or them are ascetics and live by accepting 



120 The Christian Conquest of India 

alms. Their blessing is highly prized, and their 
curse greatly feared. Many of them either prac- 
tice self-torture, or submit to severe hardships, or 
adopt repulsive habits, or contrive in some way 
to make life itself a burden and an affliction. 
They discard most of their clothing and smear 
their bodies with ashes; they forsake home and 
friends and wander among strangers. They 
fast to the limit of endurance, or perhaps eat 
repulsive food. Many are their devices for 
afflicting the body, without however having 
any clear idea of benefiting the soul. The 
predominant ideal in their minds is that of 
abstract merit, and this is the peculiar notion of 
Hindus generally. The methods adopted for self- 
inflicted penance are almost endless. Everyone 
has read of those who have held a hand aloft until 
it had become fixed in its position. At nearly 
every great fair a number of men will be seen 
going through the self-inflicted torture of what is 
called the "five fires.'^ Four fires are kept burning 
constantly around the devotee, while the sun, 
which makes the fifth, pours down its burning rays 
on the head of the sufferer. Others for months at 
a time never allow themselves to lie down to rest, 
but permit themselves to be supported in a half- 
reclining position, or suspended upon a cushion 
with their feet dangling down some distance from 
the ground. Some sleep on beds made of broken 
stones, others on spikes; while others again seek 




Fakirs 

Pierced Cheeks Vow of Silence 

On a bed of Spikes 

An Example of the Good Type 



The Eeligion 121 

torture for the body by abstaining from sleep alto- 
gether, or at least reduce their sleeping hours to 
the narrowest possible limits. 

A very common mode of practicing asceticism various 
is that of eatinsf revolting food. The complete ^^"^'^s °^ 

^ ^ -L Progression 

course of training adopted by a Hindu devotee, if 
carried to the full extent, involves one period of 
discipleship during which he is obliged to eat 
everything which is offered to him. I might say 
here that, according to a strict rule, an ordinary 
Hindu who wishes to take a full course is obliged 
to pursue six different kinds of asceticism, for a 
term of twelve years each, making seventy-two 
years in all. The poor creatures can object to 
nothing; and when a devout Hindu — perhaps a 
wealthy princess who has sent a thousand miles 
for the famous devotee — wishes to obtain a special 
favor through his works of merit, she will almost 
certainly assure herself of his sanctity by requir- 
ing a horrible test of some kind from which he 
dare not shrink. 

The moral tone of the Indian devotees, taking Moral Tone 
them as a whole, is very low. It could not be other- 
wise when so many who adopt this kind of a life 
as a profession are insincere in their lives and 
given to various modes of deception. Many of 
them, under the impression that they must sepa- 
rate their minds and hearts as far as possible from 
all worldly things, adopt a listless manner, which 
makes them seem simple almost to the point of 



123 The Christian Conquest of India 

, idiocy. In conversation they try to appear as art- 
less as little children and carefully avoid showing 
any of the wisdom of the world, even with regard 
to the most ordinary affairs. Some men of this 
class are very harmless, while others are much less 
artless than they seem to be. Many again are 
given to the use of opium or other drugs peculiar 
to India. It is probable that most of them are 
driven to the use of intoxicating or stupefying 
drugs for the sake of lessening physical pain or 
weariness. And yet, while the general character 
of the devotees as a class is by no means high, I 
have long since become convinced that many of 
them are not only sincere, but according to their 
light are blameless and harmless in ordinary life. 
From among these the missionaries occasionally 
succeed in winning Christian converts, some of 
whom have become valuable preachers of the 
Word. 
Devil Among the Mohammedan devotees are found 

Worshippers occasioual dcvil worshipers, and here and there 
fortune tellers who are capable of making lasting 
impressions for evil on the minds of young chil- 
dren when allowed to amuse them by telling their 
fortunes. On the whole, India could well spare 
her great army of devotees estimated at more than 
four millions. They do very little good, and in 
the aggregate compose a vast army of idlers. They 
are in the main the product of the mistaken notion 
that evil is inherent in matter. 



The Eeligions 123 

It is not possible, within the space allotted, to ^.n Appeal 
review the fallacies and horrible practices of the 
religions of India. Many additional appalling 
and revolting spectacles could be rehearsed, but 
have been purposely omitted lest the writer should 
be charged with immodesty or accused of being 
hopelessly biased in his judgments. Immorality, 
dishonesty, superstition, idolatry, inhuman prac- 
tices, and other evils exist because of their reli- 
gious beliefs, and summon every Christian to 
instant prayer, sacrifice, and effort in order that 
a loving Father and a saving Christ may be made 
known to the millions of India. 

QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER IV 

Aim: To Realize the Value and Limitations of 
THE GsEAT Religions of India 

I . . . The General Atmosphere. 

1.* From what you know of Indian society to 
what extent should you consider the beliefs of 
the average man to be based on intelligent 
convictions? 

2* How does the mental atmosphere conduce to- 
ward intelligent individual opinions as com- 
pared with that of the United States? 

3. What does the wide prevalence of crude animis- 

tic beliefs testify as to the religious atmos- 
phere? 

4. What seems to be the relative importance of 

ceremonial customs, theological beliefs, and 
morality? 



134 The Christian Conquest of India 

11... The Influence of Physical Surroundings. 

5.* What influence of climate and physical sur- 
roundings can you trace in the religions na- 
tive to India? 

6. What influence would the grinding poverty of 

the masses have upon religious development? 

7. What would be the effect of centuries of help- 

lessness against invasion and of oppression? 

8. What is the tendency of a hot and moist climate 

upon character? Of a vegetable and insufli- 
cient diet? 

111... Our Spirit of Approach. 

9. In what spirit ought we to approach representa- 

tives of these religions? 
10.* Give some rules in regard to argument with 

them? 
11.* What use should you make of the strongest 

points in their religions? What of the 

weakest? 

12. What would most attract you in one who was 

seeking to convert you to another religion? 

a. . .To Buddhism. 

13. What ideals should you have in common with 

a sincere middle class Buddhist? What use 
should you make of these? 

14. What are the fatal weaknesses of his system? 
15.* How should you endeavor to get him to realize 

these as weaknesses? Give suggestions in re- 
gard to each point. 

b ... To Mohammedanism. 

16. What points of contact should you have v/ith a 
sincere orthodox Mohammedan? 



The Eeligions 125 

17. What elements in Christianity would most at- 

tract his sympathy? 

18. What should you consider to be his greatest 
religious hindrances and needs? 

19.* How could you awaken his desire for some- 
thing he did not possess? 

G. . .To Hinduism. 

20. How should you begin to speak to an audience 

of ignorant Hindu villagers who had never be- 
fore heard the gospel? 

21. What do you think would constitute their chief 

aspirations and fears? 
22.* How could you utilize these in presenting 

Christianity? 
23. How should you deal with an educated Hindu 

gentleman? 
24.* How would his pantheism affect his ideas of 

the universe? Of the holiness of God? Of 

personal conscience and effort? 

25. How would his views of existence differ from 
yours? 

26. What points of agreement with him do you 
think you could find? 

27.* What kind of appeal do you think might 
arouse a response? 

lY...The Need of Christianity. 

28. State how the Christian idea of God combines 
the excellences of the Mohammedan and Hindu 
conceptions? 

29. What does it contain that they both lack? 
30.* What change will it bring to the lives of 

Buddhists, Moslems, and Hindus to know God 
as revealed in Christ? 



126 The Christian Conquest of India 

31. To what extent are we responsible for bringing 

about this change? 

32. How sufficient does the strength of man seem 
to you to be to change the lives of these 
people? 

33. How can we help to add the power of God to 
the efforts that are being made? 

Refebences Foa Advanced Study. — Chapter IV 
I. . .Buddhism. 

Barth: The Religions of India, III. 
Cochrane: Among the Burmans, V. 
Gushing: Religions of Mission Fields, IV. 
Hopkins: Religions of India, XIII. 
Mitchell: The Great Religions of India, IV. 

II. . .Mohammedanism. 
Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 116-121. 
Mitchell: The Great Religions of India, V. 
Zwemer: Religions of Mission Fields, IX. 

III.. .Hinduism. 
Barth: The Religions of India, V. 
Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 121-145. 
Chamberlain: In the Cobra's Den, X. 
Janvier: Religions of Mission Fields, III. 
Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 62-76. 
Mitchell: The Great Religions of India, II. 

lY.. .Other Native Religions. 
Barth: The Religions of India, IV. 
Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 110, 116. 
Hopkins: Religions of India, XII, XVIII. 
Hurst: Indika, 425, 431. 
Thornton: Parsi, Jain, and Sikh. 



Christian Conquerors 127 

Y. . .Hinduism and Christianity Contrasted. 
Hume: Missions from the Modern View, V. 
Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, III, IV. 
Robson: Hinduism and Its Relation to Chris- 
tianity, Pt. IV, Chap. I. 



CHRISTIAN CONQUERERS 



CHAPTER Y 
CHRISTIAN CONQUERORS 

The people of India, throughout the whole a most 

., , , . . rv j_ Accessible 

empire, are more accessible to missionary enort pieid 
than any other equal number of non- Christian 
people on the face of the globe. The Christian 
missionary may expect a certain measure of hos- 
tility, or at least, of opposition, from almost any 
race among whom he may go, with the expressed 
purpose of supplanting their religion, and in 
gome cases he may anticipate violence at the 
hands of his opponents. This is especially the 
rule in early stages of the work, and wise mis- 
sionaries will neither be surprised nor discouraged 
when signs of opposition begin to appear. But 
it is surprising to observe the state of things which 
now prevails in India. The gospel is preached 
freely everywhere, and the object of the missiona- 
ries is stated in the clearest terms, but, with an 
occasional exception, no disturbance is caused and 
no displeasure or alarm manifested. The Moham- 
medans are less open to evangelization than the 
Hindus, but if the missionary is discreet, even they 
will .make no unfriendly demonstration. In other 
words, religious liberty, free speech, and a free 
press prevail without challenge and without pro- 
test in almost the entire country. 
131 



132 The Christian Conquest of India 



Nestorian or 

Syrian 

Christians 



Nestorian Christians 

The early Portuguese settlers in India were 
amazed and in a measure confounded to find a 
large community of Christians living in southern 
India. These people did not differ much from their 
Indian neighbors in appearance or in character, but 
the}^ had a recognized place in the community as 
Christians, and affirmed that they were connected 
with the Nestorian branch of the ancient Church. 
How they had come into existence in India was 
not known, and no certain light has been shed 
upon this problem in the centuries which have 
since passed. They are popularly known as 
Syrian Christians, and it is possible that they are 
the remnants of Christian communities which are 
known to have existed in India as far back as the 
second century. 
They Main- The Portuguesc advcuturcrs and missionaries 

Independence ^^^^ ^^^^ fouud thcse Syrian Christians in India, 
were sorely disappointed when they discovered 
that they stood in no ecclesiastical relation to the 
Boman Catholic Church, and at once endeavored 
to induce them to acknowledge the authority of 
the Pope, but they soon found that this was not 
an easy task. Although they were relentlessly per- 
secuted, the Syrian Christians still maintained 
their own distinct character. 

*An early sect of Christians named after Nestorius, 
patriarch of Constantinople, in the fifth century A.. D, 




Oldest Syrian Church in India at Kottayam 




Henry Marlyn's Pagoda 

Ancient Structure at Serampur Used by Him for a Temporary 

Place of Study 



Christian Conquerors 



133 



Xavier and the Roman Catholic Missions 



His Ritualistic 
Method 



The Portuguese adopted the policy of introdue- Portuguese 
ing the Christian religion among their subjects in Auth°ority 
their eastern possessions by the use of arts of 
various kinds, but more especially by the direct 
exercise of authority, and they seemed to meet 
with a large measure of nominal success. But 
the change which took place both in individuals 
and communities was chiefly external, and in most 
cases where compulsion had been used, the first 
opportunity for discarding the new faith was 
eagerly embraced. 

An}" account of the early Roman Catholic mis- xavier and 
sions in India would be very incomplete which did 
not assign a prominent place to the famous Jesuit 
apostle, Francis Xavier. The career of this extraor- 
dinary man was remarkable, but his work was 
superficial in the extreme. It was his custom to 
prepare a few very simple lessons, including the 
Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Ave Maria, 
and the Lord's Prayer, and to have these memo- 
rized by boys who were to teach them to the people. 
He found no difficulty in collecting large audi- 
ences, armed as he was with royal authority, and 
when he went forth into the streets with a bell to 
summon the people to come forth to his services 
he never failed to meet with a prompt response. 

One year sufficed to convince Xavier that he 



could not achieve. success on a large scale in India, 



Idea of 

Using 

"Kings" 



134 The Christian Conquest of India 



Advised 
Setting up of 
Inquisition 



Later 
Jesuit 
Failure 



Unprogressive 
Descendants 



SO he began to look for a more hopeful field. He 
also began to consider new plans for securing 
larger and more enduring results, and at one time 
he became much impressed with a plan for con- 
verting "kings/^ a title which he seems to have 
given to every petty prince or chief whom he met. 
His new ideal was that of securing the submission 
and conversion of a native prince or chief, and 
then inducing him to order his subjects to receive 
baptism and at the same time to become responsi- 
ble for keeping them faithful to their new obliga- 
tions. But the scheme was utterly impracticable, 
for the "kings'^ did not respond either to his 
appeals or his demands. 

In his later days, Xavier so far yielded to the 
temptation to adopt sheer force in maintaining 
the authority of the church and advancing his 
interests, that he wrote to the Pope advising that 
a branch of the Inquisition, then newly established 
in Europe, should be set up in India, and this 
terrible expedient was actually adopted, but not 
until after his death. 

About fifty years after the death of Xavier, the 
Jesuits established a strong mission on the east 
coast of southern India, and were led even to 
attempt the winning of the people to their faith 
by methods of deception and imposture, but in the 
end such methods only ended in disastrous failure. 

Descendants of the early Eoman Catholic con- 
verts are still found in large numbers in western 



Christian Conquerors 



135 



and southern India, where they are popularly 
known as Portuguese Christians. They constitute 
a distinct class in the general Christian commu- 
nity, and have not made much progress in educa- 
tion or social position. 

Danish Settlements and the Pioneer Protestant 
Missionaries 



Unlike the other European powers in the East, Denmark's 
the Danish government protected missionaries at ^^°^^^^ 
all its settlements, and while making the mistake 
which was common to all governments in that age, 
of trpng to administer missionary affairs under 
the strict control of the secular power, it yet 
avoided serious mistakes for the most part, and 
succeeded in choosing some good and true men as 
pioneers of the Christian enterprise. 

In 1705 Ziegenbalg and Plutschau were sent ziegenbaig 
out as the first missionaries from Denmark, and 
the first Protestant missionaries who have been 
generally recognized as belonging rightfully to 
the great missionary brotherhood of the Eastern 
world. They were located in Tranquebar, a 
Danish possession on the extreme southeastern 
coast of India, and at once began to study the 
language and engage in such efforts for the good 
of the settlement as lay in their power. But 
opposition was soon developed; not among the 
natives, but as so often happened in early days in 



and 
Plutschau 



136 The Christian Conquest of India 



Pioneers in 

Modern 

Lines 



Converts and 
The Press 



India, the officials in charge of the settlement 
became hostile, and Ziegenbalg was thrown into 
prison. No cable could carry the news to Europe 
in those days, and a long time elapsed before he 
regained his liberty. But the work went on, and 
was extended to the neighboring kingdom of Tan- 
jore, and a little later to Tinnevelli. Later still, 
Madras was occupied as a missionary station, and 
for many years the Danish organization was 
known as "the Coast Mission." 

These Danish missionaries made some grave 
mistakes, but on the other hand they established 
some valuable precedents which are widely fol- 
lowed to the present day. They were the pioneers 
in the work of Bible translation, and within three 
years they had taken up the important work of 
preparing a suitable literature in the Tamil lan- 
guage for the people among whom they were to 
live. They were the first missionaries to use the 
agency of schools^ not merely as an ally of civiliza- 
tion, but as an aid to their missionary enterprise. 
Numerous itinerations were made among the 
people, and, in short, mission work in elementary 
ways at least, was established on lines not essen- 
tially different from those now employed. 

Success attended these good men from the first. 
By the end of three and one half years, they had 
gathered around them one hundred and sixty con- 
verts, and ten years later the number had quad- 
rupled. A flourishing station was established in 



Christian Conquerors 137 

Madras, and the missionaries began to preach in 
Telugu and Portuguese as well as in Tamil. N'o 
less than one hundred and forty persons were bap- 
tized in Madras in a single year. The publications 
of their press were in eager demand in Bombay 
and other distant places, and some of them even 
found their wa}^ to important towns in northern 
India. 

A new era may be dated in the history of the Schwartz 
Danish mission from the arrival of Christian 
Friedrich Schwartz in 1750. This extraordinary 
man is universally conceded to have been one of 
the greatest leaders who has appeared in the mis- 
sionary ranks in India. He was a gifted man, a 
devoted Christian, an untiring and unselfish 
worker, a good organizer, and had in his person 
nearly all the elements which enter into the char- 
acter of a leader of men. At the time of his arri- 
val the first generation of missionaries had nearly 
all passed away. Troublous times were at hand 
in southern India and he seemed to be the provi- 
dential man to breast the coming storms. He won 
the favor of hostile Frenchmen, was trusted by 
Hindu and Mohammedan rulers without hesita- 
tion, and became the agent of British rulers in 
negotiations of great delicacy and of supreme im- 
portance. For the first sixteen years his field of 
labor was in Tranquebar and its neighborhood, 
but his activities were afterward largely trans- 
ferred to Trichinopoli and Tanjore. In both 



138 The Christian Conquest of India 

places he was able to secure the erection of 
churches through the liberal gifts which his char- 
acter and services called forth from English civil- 
ians and soldiers and native rulers. It was in 
1779 that he was entrusted by the officials at 
Madras with a conciliatory mission to Hyder All, 
the prince who was exercising control in the king- 
dom of Mysore. "Send me the Christian/' said 
the suspicious ruler, "he will not deceiv-e me.'' 
As one result, Schwartz by his intercession was 
able to save the district of Cuddalore from 
destruction by the savage hordes of the enemy. 
When Hyder forced upon him a present of three 
hundred rupees, the unselfish missionary gave it 
to the English authorities to be applied to the 
building of an orphan asylum in Tanjore. 
Evangelistic He was an evangelist in his method of mis- 
sionary labor, and led many thousands into the 
Christian Church. It has been estimated that 
there were 50,000 Christians connected with the 
Danish mission at the close of the eighteenth cen- 
tury. The host of converts who were thus rallied 
under the banner of Schwartz and his associates 
were not all lost to Christianity. Some of them 
or their descendants no doubt were absorbed by 
other missions or churches in later years, though 
the numbers of Christians in their several fields 
by 1850, was surprisingly small."^ 

^Sherring, History of Protestant Missions in India, 
51. 



Success 



Christian Conquerors 139 

British Beginning made hy William Carey 

In the inauguration of the first real attempt of 
Great Britain to evangelize India, God chose a 
leader whom man never could have chosen. Wil- 
liam Carey gave little promise in early life of 
achieving success in his chosen calling, or for that 
matter, in any calling. His genius seemed to the 
dull-minded people around him, an eccentricity; 
his absorbed thoughtfulness, a mark of stupidity. 
As a country shoemaker he was barely able to make 
a living, and as a pastor of a small Baptist church, 
he prospered but little better. But he thought; 
he absorbed knowledge as if by instinct, and he 
developed a marvelous ability to master both 
ancient and modern languages. Such a man com- 
pelled both respect and attention; and when he 
began to talk about the duty of Christ's Church to 
evangelize the world, it became certain that the 
missionary cause would get a hearing in at least 
one somewhat remote community. Nothing could 
discourage, and certainly nothing could silence 
this persistent advocate of a great idea; and soon 
friends began to rally around the standard which 
he had set up. His plans, as viewed in the light 
of the present day, do not appear to have been 
wise or even practicable ; but the supreme duty of 
the hour was recognized and boldly proclaimed by 
him, and his voice began to be like that of an old- 
time prophet. 



William 
Carey 



140 The Christian Conquest of India 



Baptist 

Missionary 

Society 



Carey goes to 
India 



After many discouragements, it was decided to 
discuss the question at a meeting of Baptist min- 
isters to be held at Kettering ; and on this occasion 
Carey preached a sermon of extraordinary pathos 
and power, which produced a remarkable impres- 
sion upon his brethren and led to the immediate 
organization of what is now the Baptist Mission- 
ary Society. But all this happened in a somewhat 
obscure country district, and the new society had 
very few friends and no visible resources. In Lon- 
don the Baptist leaders looked upon the Kettering 
movement almost as an impertinence. In all ages 
alike, Jerusalem is offended if Nazareth becomes 
the starting-point of a new evangel. But the men 
who had associated themselves with Carey in this 
great enterprise were not wanting either in 
courage or devotion, and no further time was lost 
in talk. 

Before his notable sermon Carey had preached 
a sermon at the meeting of the Baptist Association 
in which his theme was summarized in the now 
famous words that have become one of the best 
known missionary mottoes: ^^Expect great things 
from Grod ; attempt great things for God.^^ These 
two phrases give the keynote of his life. The obsta- 
cles seemed almost too great to be overcome in the 
way of his going to India, the chief being the oppo- 
sition to the presence of missionaries on the part 
of the British East India Company. But a way was 
providentially opened for him and his family to 



Christian Conquerors 141 

go on a Danish ship, and they reached Calcutta, 
November 11, 1793. The date is that from v/hich 
the modern era of missionary conquest of India is 
now reckoned. True to his motto, it was not long 
before Carey was attempting great things for God. 

The poor cobbler of England, with scant provi- work at 
sion for support from the homeland, soon had ^"<^"^^^">' 
opened to him at Mudnabatty, a hundred and fifty 
miles north of Calcutta, the superintendency of an 
indigo factory at a salar}^ of $300 a year, yet with 
such duties that he had time for the work of his 
mission. Plunging into the study of Bengali, he 
was able in a few months to begin preaching in 
that language among the two hundred villages 
around him, while he gave careful attention to the 
spiritual needs of the many native workmen 
employed in the factory. At the same time he 
began his great work of translating the Scriptures 
into Bengali. Thus at Mudnabatty for more than 
five years from 1794 to 1800, Carey provided for 
his own expenses, while doing a vast amount of 
missionary work, mastered the Bengali language, 
and began the translating of the Bible into that 
tongue by completing the N"ew Testament. 

In the year 1800 commenced the era of his set- Atserampur 
tlement with other missionaries at Serampur, a 
town about fifteen miles north of Calcutta and 
then under Danish control. Here occurred the 
scene when Carey was permitted to baptize in the 
Hugli Eiver, first his own son Felix, using English 



142 The Christian Conquest of India 



Professor at 
Fort William 
College 



■Work as 
Translator 



words, and then Krishna Pal, his first Hindu con- 
Yert, with the baptismal formula in Bengali. It is 
not strange that the governor of the Danish settle- 
ment who was present could not restrain his tears 
of emotion at the sight. 

In 1801 Carey's translation of the New Testa- 
ment into Bengali was issued. The eminent 
scholarship which it disclosed led to his call to the 
chair of Bengali in the government college at Fort 
William, Calcutta. His first position was that of 
teacher of Bengali, afterward of Sanskrit and of 
Marathi, with a salary of $3,000 per year. It was 
not long before he became professor of these three 
languages, and his emoluments rose to $7,500 a 
year;^ but the whole of this income, excepting 
about $200 annually needed for the support of his 
family, was devoted to the interests of the mis- 
sion.^ This position he held with highest success 
and honor until 1830, within four years of his 
death. 

Either under his superintendence or by himself, 
translations of the Scriptures were made in thirty^ 
five languages or dialects. Of these, six were of 
the whole Bible; twenty-two of the New Testa- 
ment, five including also a considerable part of the 
Old Testament ; and seven of portions of the New 
Testament.^ A great multitude of tracts were 
^Sherring, History of Protestant Missions in India, 



63 



^Creegan, Great Missionaries of the Church, 52, 53. 
^Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 170. 



Achievements 



Christian Conquerors 143 

issued, as well as books for schools and colleges. 
As early as 1810 Carey had five mission centers in 
operation, in Bengal, Bhutan, Burma, Orissa, and 
the new station at Agra. By the close of 1816 the 
Serampur missionaries had baptized about 700 
native converts, and in their schools Christian 
instruction had been imparted to more than 
10,000 heathen children/ 

Dr. Carey wrote grammars and elementary text- Learning and 
books of many of the languages that he acquired. 
He possessed wide knowledge of the arts and 
sciences. Improvements were made in the native 
paper for press purposes, rendering it proof against 
destruction by insects, a steam engine was 
imported to work the paper mill, and practical 
knowledge was applied to botany and agriculture, 
resulting in great material benefits to India. He 
cared little for the many honors which came to 
him, or for worldly praise. His work was to make 
Christ known, to impart to Indians millions the 
Word of God, to stop cruel sacrifices such as those 
of children at the great annual festival at Gunga 
Sanger; to secure the abolition of the awful cus- 
tom of widow-burning on the pyre of the dead hus- 
band. He had the joy in 1829 of translating into 
Bengali the decree and proclamation which forever 
put an end to this horrible practice of Hinduism. 
He laid the foundations broad and deep of the 

^Sherring, History of Protestant Missions in India, 
175. 



144 The Christian Conquest of India 

great Protestant missionary movement not only in 
India but in all the Orient. For forty-one years 
unbroken by return to England, he toiled for 
India's Christian conquest, his death occurring 



--^^E^ PA L ;:;) B H U T A N^^^-^t^- 







00 CD 
S> OJ 

a> o 



EASTERN INDIA 



June 9, 1834. Surely William Carey not only 
'attempted but accomplished great things for God ; 
he expected and received great things from God. 



Christian Conquerors 



145 



Creative Power of Carey's Letters and Influence 

Two great missionary impulses, each of far- Giving 
reachino: sio-nificance, appeared, one in the clo^ng impulse to 

° ^ ^ i i ^ o Missionary- 

years of the eighteenth century and the other in organization 

the early years of the nineteenth, both arising from 
the effect of Dr. William Care/s letters from 
India. In Great Britain these letters aroused such 
conviction and interest among non-Baptists as 
resulted in 1795 in the organization of the London 
Missionary Society which has largely been the 
agency for the missionary work of the Indepen- 
dents, or Congregationalists, of the British Isles. 
Somewhat later Dr. Carer's letters came to Amer- 
ica and produced a similar missionary awakening, 
which found organic expression in 1810 in the 
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign 
Missions, now almost wholly the channel of the 
missionary operations of the Congregationalists of 
the United States. Carey^s influence also pre- 
pared the way for later Baptist missionary organi- 
zation in the United States, as interest in his work 
and that of his associates led the members of Bap- 
tist churches in America to send to England con- 
tributions in their aid, sometimes to the amount 
of several thousand dollars a vear. 



Other Men of Might 

Henry Mart}Ti received his first missionary Henry 
impulse while still at Cambridge, from a remark ^^^y^ 



146 The Christian Conquest of India 

of the Rev. Charles Simeon, the university 
preacher, on the good accomplished by a single 
missionary, Carey, in India. The impression was 
intensified by his reading The Life of David 
Brainerd, and he decided to give himself to mis- 
sion work. The need of providing support for a 
sister led him to accept a chaplaincy under the 
East India Company, but his was not less a soul 
aflame with missionary devotion. On the passage 
out he studied Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic. 
Arriving in India in 1806, he displayed a quench- 
less zeal and exerted and left a marvelous influ- 
ence, which taken with his brief years of service 
and the disappointment of his hopes of domestic 
joys, has caused his name to be instinctively linked 
with that of Brainerd. "Now let me burn out for 
God,*^ he wrote two days after his arrival in 
Calcutta. 
At Dinapur Soou he was far up the Ganges at Dinapur near 
Patna, with the two regiments to which he had 
been assigned as chaplain. In a letter to England 
he says, "I fag as hard here as ever we did for our 
degrees at Cambridge. The heat is terrible, often 
at .98 degrees, the nights insupportable.^' Yet he 
was engaged in translating the New Testament 
into Hindustani, and at the same time was pre- 
paring a book on the parables of our Lord, and a 
translation of the Book of Common Prayer. He 
held almost daily discussions with Hindus and 
Mohammedans, and cared for vernacular schools 



Christian Conquerors 



147 



which he had organized and was supporting from 
his own purse. In addition to all this, his duties 
as chaplain to the English troops and civilians 
were faithfully performed. In March, 1808, 
Martyn^s Hindustani translation of the New Tes- 
tament was completed. On the twelfth of the 
same month a new church edifice for which he had 
earnestly labored was opened for divine service. ^t cawnpur 

Shortly afterward came the transference of his 
chaplaincy to the troops at Cawnpur. Here almost 
the same labors as at Dinapur for troops, civilians, 
children, and for a church building were carried 
forward, while with Sabat, an Arab, who had 
been baptized at Madras, Persian and Arabic ver- 
sions of the New Testament were undertaken. 
Even an open air assembly of beggars was con- 
ducted Sunday by Sunday during the eighteen 
months of Martyn's labors at Cawnpur. It bore 
unexpected fruit, for a young Mussulman, who 
with others first watched this meeting with scorn, 
was through it won to Christ, became a native 
preacher, with the name Abdul Masih, "servant of 
Christ,^^ and was instrumental in leading many 
to the Saviour, one being tlie chief physician of 
the Eajah of Bhurtpur. 

Under his intense labors, together with the his Farewell 
effect of the climate, the health of the young chap- *° ^°**** 
lain began to decline, and there were admonitory 
signs of consumption.' It was also seen, after 
his Persian translation of the New Testament 



148 The Christian Conquest of India 

appeared, that it would be desirable to go into 
Arabia and Persia, that he might more success- 
fully solve the problem of the idiomatic rendering 
of the New Testament into Arabic and Persian. 
On the last Sabbath of September, 1810, he took 
leave of his European congregation in Cawnpur. 
On that very day the church edijSice, the erection of 
which he had promoted, was opened for divine 
service, and it continued to be the military church 
of Cawnpur till 1857, when it was destroyed by the 
mutineers. After leaving India, a year was spent 
at Shiraz in carrying through the fresh transla- 
tion of the New Testament into Persian. 
A Hero's Finally after a measure of recovery from more 
Triumph gerious illness, this frail man of indomitable will 
started on a horseback journey of 1,300 miles to 
Constantinople, hoping thus to make his way back 
to England. Such a ride would have taxed the 
endurance of the strongest, and the stages of the 
course were traversed with brutal haste by Hassan, 
a Turkish attendant. What wonder that on Octo- 
ber 6, when a fresh relay of horses were not to be 
had, Martyn should write: "I sat in the orchard 
and thought with sweet comfort and peace of my 
God, in solitude my Company, my Friend and 
Comforter. when shall time give place to eter- 
nity? When shall appear that new heaven and 
new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness ?" For 
him the transition was close at hand from pain 
and hardship to release and triumph, for on Octo- 



Christian Conquerors 149 

ber 16, 1812, he reached Tocat, and passed awa}^, 
and his body was there laid to rest in the Arme- 
nian cemetery. His influence, like that of Brain- 
erd's is undying, and of the kind that has created 
many missionaries. Though permitted to give 
but four brief years of service to India, his name 
is joined imperishably with the Christian conquest 
of the Orient ; and his versions of the 'New Testa- 
ment in Hindustani and Persian, spoken by many 
millions of people, are enduring monuments to his 
scholarship and missionary devotion. 

"Adoniram Judson," says Dr. George Smith, Adoniram 
^^is surpassed by no missionary since the apostle •1"'^^°" 
Paul in self-devotion and scholarship, in labors 
and perils, in saintliness and humility, and in the 
result of his toils on the future of an empire and 
its multitudinous peoples."^ 

After his conversion and preparation for mis- Marriage and 
sion work abroad, Judson was married in 1812 to 
Miss Ann Hasseltine, and sailed with his bride 
from Salem, Massachusetts, for Calcutta. He was 
a member of the Congregational Church and went 
out under the American Board, but on the long 
voyage he came to the view that the Baptist belief 
was more nearly in agreement with the Scriptures., 
Accordingly, after arriving at Calcutta, he and his 
wife were received into fellowship by the Baptist 
missionaries at Serampur, and he resigned his 
connection with the American Board. Mr. Rice, 

^Smith, The Conversion of India, 151. 



Arrival in 
Burma 



150 The Christian Conquest of India 



Difficult 
Beginnings 



Disappoint- 
ment and 
Imprisonment 
at Ava 



who though going out on another ship, passed 
through a like experience, returned to America to 
urge the organizing of a Baptist Missionary Soci- 
ety, and this was effected in 1814. Provision was 
thus made for sustaining the mission to Burma 
undertaken by Mr. and Mrs. Judson, and after 
great vicissitudes they reached Eangoon, July 13, 
1813. 

Burma was then an independent empire with 
a population of about eight millions. The govern- 
ment was an absolute despotism, arbitrary and 
cruel, and the religion was Buddhism. There 
were two languages to be learned, the common 
Burmese and the sacred Pali. Judson at once 
commenced the translation of the Bible into the 
Burmese. Eeinforcements arrived in 1816 and 
the printing press began to put tracts and portions 
of the Scriptures into circulation. In 1819, about 
six years after his arrival in Rangoon, Judson was 
able to begin preaching to a Burmese audience in 
their own tongue, and not long after the first con- 
vert, Moung jSTau, was won to Christ. Gradually 
others were added till in 1822 there was a native 
church of eighteen members. 

Judson greatly desired to plant Christianity at 
Ava, the capital of the empire,^ and for this pur- 
pose had made a journey by boat four hundred 
miles up the Irawadi from Eangoon, and secured 
an interview with the emperor, but without avail 

^Ava is located just south of Mandalay. 



Christian Conquerors 151 

as far as permission to evangelize the natives was 
concerned. Leaving the little church at Kangoon 
in charge of others who had come to reinforce the 
mission, Dr. and Mrs. Jndson removed to Aysl in 
1823. But scarcely had they arrived before war 
broke out between the English and the emperor. 
Dr. Judson and other foreigners were thrown into 
prison, where for nine months he lay in three 
pairs, and for two months more in five pairs of 
fetters. Then for six months^ more he remained 
in a country prison in one pair of fetters. The 
prisons were indescribably filthy, and for greater 
security the prisoners at night were partly sus- 
pended from a bamboo pole. For the rest of his 
life Judson bore the scars of the fetters he wore at 
Ava and the prison Oung-pen-la. During all these 
months his devoted wife went back and forth amid 
the burning heat and among the mocking foes 
daily carrying food to her imprisoned husband. 

In her girlhood days Mrs. Judson had expressed womaniy 
a desire to "ramble.''' Truly she had rambled far ^e^o^sm 
from the quiet New England manse from which 
she went forth as a bride, but it was for the sake 
of the souls of Burma that she sought to make one 
home after another in that land, and with her hus- 
band pierced its jungles, threaded its rivers, lin- 
gered among its prisons, and at length with their 
little daughter Maria found the rest that is undis- 

Adoniram Judson: A Biography, by his son Ed- 
ward Judson, D.D., 27. 



152 The Christian Conquest of India 



Service at 
Maulmein and 
Among the 
Karens 



Immortal 
Words 



Finishing a 

Masterly 

Course 



turbed, beneath the hopia-tree in southern Burma. 
She is but one of the many examples of supreme 
heroism among the wives of missionaries. 

The principal center for Judson's activities was 
Maulmein at the mouth of the Salwin, southeast 
from Rangoon across the Gulf of Martaban. From 
this point, aided by other missionaries and native 
helpers, he did much to extend the Christian 
movement among the Karens. To reach them 
required excursions to be made into the jungles 
and remote recesses among the hills bordering the 
valley of the Salwin. They proved most suscep- 
tible to missionary effort. Evangelization also 
went forward rapidly among the Burmans. 

Although the intolerance of the court at Ava 
never was removed during Judson's life, he 
unceasingly sought to extend the work into the 
heart of the empire. When asked as to the pros- 
pects of the gospel in Burma, his reply was in the 
famous words that have become one of the most 
inspiring of missionary mottoes: "The prospects 
are as bright as the promises of God.'' 

In the year 1834 Dr. Judson completed his 
translation of the entire Bible into Burmese, and 
about seven years later finished the revision, which 
was a still more laborious task. It was a stupen- 
dous work to be carried through single-handed, 
and is regarded as one of the most successful of 
versions. He also compiled a Burmese dictionary, 
and was the author of writings that exerted a 



Christian Conquerors 153 

powerful influence in Christianity's long battle 
with the bigotry and intolerance of the native 
Buddhistic powers. The end came of this most 
strenuous of missionary lives in 1850^ on a ship 
bringing the worn laborer to America, and almost 
fittingly the mortal frame of a soul so boundless 
in its purpose and endeavor found sepulcher in the 
illimitable deep. At the time of his death the 
native Christians numbered 7,000, and in 1905 
the number of communicants in the Baptist 
churches of Burma from many different races, 
were more than 53,000. He laid the foundation 
of the religion of Christ deep down in the Burman 
heart, and no power of opposition has been able to 
sweep it away. 

Charles Simeon, the earnest and spiritual Alexander 
preacher at Cambridge, who largely inspired the ^"^ 
formation of the Church Missionary Society and 
kindled the soul of Henry Martyn into flame for 
India, by a chance sermon in the little village of 
Moulin during a trip to Scotland probably indi- 
rectly won another great missionary for India. 
James Duff and Jean Eattray, destined to be the 
father and mother of Alexander Duff, were in the 
little village kirk that day, and it was to both of 
them the beginning of a new life. Born in 1806, 
Dr. Duff attributed his first missionary impression 
to that father, who when his little son was but four 
years old showed him pictures of idols and stirred 
his heart with compassion for the heathen. 



154 The Christian Conquest of India 



Preparation 
for and 

Entrance upon 
Mission "Work 



Young Duff, recently graduated from St. 
Andrew's, licensed, ordained, married by Dr. 
Chalmers to Anne Scott Drysdale, after two ship- 
wrecks on the voyage, arrived with his bride in 
Calcutta, May 27, 1830. He was at this time 
twenty-four years of age, of commanding presence 
and boundless energy, and had accepted his com- 
mission from the General Assembly of the Church 
of Scotland to go out as a missionary to India 
unhampered by conditions. Well that it was so, 
for the one point of instruction which he had 
received, not to found in Calcutta the institution 
which the Society was to establish under his care, 
had to be disregarded. The judgment of Dr. 
Carey, whose blessing he r ceived at Serampur, 
coincided with his own, and at Calcutta the plan 
of a Christian mission college which should do its 
work with the English language as its medium 
was carried out with astonishing success. It 
proved to be one of the great revolutionizing steps 
that in an educational way almost did for India 
what the public school system has accomplished 
for Xorth America. It was really an essential fac- 
tor in the process of uniting the interests of Eng- 
land and India, which caused it to be quickly 
adopted by the British government schools in 
India. It has emancipated the young men and 
women of the lower ranks and castes, and given 
them an outlook toward advancement and posi- 
tion. Yet its first most noticeable effects were 



Christian Conquerors 155 

seen in the large numbers, reaching into the hun- 
dreds, of high-caste Hindu young men who were 
drawn to the school, and from whose ranks some 
were soon led to Christ, such as Krishna Mohun 
Bannerjea, and the Eev. Gopinath ^N'undy. The 
students recognized in the Holy Scriptures, which 
were faithfully taught in the college along with 
other studies, an uplifting influence such as their 
own sacred books did not possess. "Love your 
enemies ; bless them that curse you. How beauti- 
ful ! how divine ! Surely those Scriptures contain 
the truth," exclaimed one of the students one 
morning during the Bible hour. 

Dr. Duff also wrought marvels by his eloquence Educative 
in awakening the missionary spirit in the entire E°^uence 
English-speaking world of his day. Such an edu- 
cative and inspirational movement was necessary 
in the middle period of the nineteenth century as 
a basis for the great missionary advances in its 
closing decades. Probably no other voice has ever 
promoted the cause of missions by quickening the 
thought and feeling of the home field as did Dr. 
Duff. In periods of recuperation from sickness 
and the strain of his work in India he and his wife 
were in Great Britain from 183-i to 1839 and again 
from 1850 to 1855, and in the last-named year he 
visited the United States and Canada, everywhere 
arousing immense enthusiasm. Through his 
efforts missionaries were steadily dispatched to 
India and the stream of contributions to sustain 



156 The Christian Conquest of India 

them and the schools wonderfully increased, so 
that on the return of the unwearied leader and 
his wife to India the college at Calcutta, the grow- 
ing Christian college of south India at Madras, 
and other parts of the work were found to be in 
a most flourishing condition. 
The Again disabled by illness in 1863, Dr. Duff, 

Evening Glow .J -^ • 4? • j x i 

amid a great company oi sorrowing iriends, took 
final leave of the land for which he had labored for 
thirty-three years. But there was no waning of 
his zeal for its Christian uplift. Called by his 
Church to a missionary professorship, he prepared 
courses of lectures which he gave winter by winter 
in the colleges of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and Glas- 
gow, Then there were the years from 1873 
onward when less could be undertaken, but even 
in the last year the advocacy of India's cause had 
the right of way. At last came the serene end of 
a great missionary career, February 12, 1878. 

Ever Enlarging Roll of WorTcers 
Men and The roll of noblc missionary workers in India 

Heralds of ^s a loug ouc. In earlier, as in later periods, it 
Light includes the names of sons and daughters of other 

lands than Great Britain and America. And of 
those who have gone forth from the English- 
speaking race only a few can be mentioned of the 
scores who have completed their course, not to 
speak of the hundreds who are still on the battle 
line. 



Christian Conquerors 157 

Characters replete with interest are associated characters 
with the early dawn of the modern missionary era °^ *^^ Dawn 
in India. There are Joshua Marshman and Wil- 
liam Ward, Carey^s devoted and deeply learned 
companions at Serampur, who went out in 1799; 
Eeginald Heber, the saintly bishop of Calcutta, 
who first having composed the matchless mission- 
ary hymn, 

From Greenland's icy mountains, 
From India's coral strand, 

went to India in 1823 and poured out his life in 
willing service to her people ; chaplains of the East 
India Company to be named along with Henry 
Martyn, such as David Brown, Claudius Buchanan, 
Daniel Corrie, and Thomas Thomason; Eingle- 
taube the eccentric but effective pioneer in Madras 
and Tinnevelli; Samuel Kewell, among the first 
to go to the foreign field under the inspiration of 
the Williams College movement; and his wife, 
Harriet Newell, whose early death and burial on 
the Isle of France left her grave a waymark point- 
ing toward India's conquest. 

In the decades from 1820 to 1850, John Wilson, Three Forma- 
Robert Nesbit, and J. Murray Mitchell, almost the 
first of Scotland's gifted sons offering themselves 
for India, strongly advanced the lines of educa- 
tional and literary work begun by Carey ; Gordon 
Hall of the American Board left a record in Bom- 
bay and western India for self-forgetting service 



tive Decades 



158 The Christian Conquest of India 

that reminds one of Brainerd and Martyn ; Hough 
and Pettitt won victories in the field of Tinnevelli ; 
while Bailev and others in Travancore and Cochin, 



Gordon Hall 1812 — 1826 
John Wilson 1829-1875 
J. Murray Mitchell , Robert Nesbit 1827— 
Bombay OAhmadnagar 
Ig ' Samuel B Fairbank 1846-1898 

Narayan Sheshadri 
®Poona 
Pdnd i ta Ramabai 

HAIDARABAD 

* TelugUS^r^ ^849-1885 

bamuelS Day I Nellore 

l840-i853^ljohnE.CIoufeh 1865- 
rranc is A Dougldsslj^hn Anderson 1837-55 

John Scu£lderl836-l855ol M ;3 rl r- ;q e: 
Bangalore© V M.C A.O/'^ ^dra 5 
^ DavidMcConaughy/Jo^in Murdoch 1858- 

-^m OMysore 1889 /W.T.Satthianadhan 
■-^\ ThomasHodson L. , 

"WCallCut ^^^jQjg|Zie^enbaigl706-l7l9 
AwiiiiamTpd i835WPIutbChau 1706 
S\TvaX*;^I'^'"^7Schwartz 1750-1796 
^\ TiwMFun 1 1 / W.TRinaletaubeia04-i5 
COCH I N V y^amesHou^h I8I6-I82I 

TRavanCOReV / Georoe Pettitt 

BenjaminaaileylSiSA,^ o^^urgtf r&x^ij.z 



WESTEKN AND SOUTHERN INDIA 

Tod and Hoisington in Madura, and Hodson and 
his fellow-workers in Mysore covered other parts 
of southern India. John Scudder became the pic- 



Ckrisnan Conquerors 159 

neer of medical missions in Ceylon and the region 
of Madras, and demonstrated that a regimen of 
Total abstinence was possible in the Orient. 
George Dana Boardman. linked his name imperish- 
ably with the beginnings of the marvelous move- 
ment among the Karens of Burma. Xot on ship- 
board, but back into the forest paths he com- 
manded the bearers of the litter to carry him, that 
with his expiring breath he might welcome into 
the fellowship of the Chnrch of Christ the first- 
fruits of his work among these "wild men"^ of the 
jungles. 

Finally came the wonderful half century of Half century 
achievement from 1850 to 1900. Scarcely was the °^ Expansion 
Mutiny over before Dr. William Bntler was able 
to lay the foundations in the Ganges valley of the 
work of an American society' that has since spread 
to nearly all parts of the Indian empire; Ander- 
son and Johnston at Madras grandly carried out 
the educational idea of Duff for southern India; 
Murdoch developed the field of Christian litera- 
ture; Samuel B. Fairbank wrought powerfully 
among the Marathas in the west: John E. Clough 
gained thousands among the Telugus in the east 
from the long planting of Day, Douglass, and 
Jewett: William Taylor started an evangelistic 
wave in the great cities like Calcutta, Bombay, 
Poena, and Madras, that has scarcely ceased yet to 

^The name "Karens" means literally "wild men." 
-That of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 



IGO 



The Christian Conquest of India 



roll over the land; and Samuel H. Kellogg by his 
scholarship and power as a linguist and Christian 
thinker left an indelible impress upon the field of 
north India. 




Women's Era 



NORTHERN INDIA 

This is also the half century during which 
women's organizations to reach their "shut-in" 



Christian Conquerors 161 



'O 



sisters thronghoiit the non-Christian lands spran< 
into being. The 143,000,000 women of India, the 
most inaccessible to previous missionary effort of 
any stich numbers the world over, began to be 
pointed to the healing and compassionate Christ 
by such workers as Mrs. H. C. Mullens, Mrs. 
Murilla B. Ingalls, Charlotte Maria Tucker, and 
Isabella Thoburn. Xbwhere have richer types of 
devoted womanly lives made beautiful the path- 
ways of the heavenly evangel. 

Such are some of the men and women who Christ to 
through the first century of immeasurable toil and p°^^®^^ ^^'^^^ 
sacrifice have gone forth among India's millions. 
Xot one has doubted that his or hers was a work 
of conquest. Christ is to possess India. For this 
like Carey the missionaries have attempted great 
things. For this with Mart^m they have been 
ready to ''burn out for God.*" For this with Jud- 
son they have seen the divine promises aglow with 
light. For this with Duff they have sought to 
arouse countries and continents. Perhaps to the 
vision of many the Christian conquest of India is 
scarcely begun ; but to those who can rightly esti- 
mate the barriers that have yielded, the transfor- 
mations that have occurred, the army of workers 
foreign and native upon the field, the converts 
and communities massing about the cross, there 
comes the unquestioning assurance that a new and 
redeemed India is soon to reward the irresistible 
efforts of its missionary conquerors. 



163 The Christian Conquest of India 

QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER V 

Aim: To Determine the Elements of Missionary 

Character that Have Contributed Most 

TO THE Conquest of India 



I. . .Methods that Failed. 

1. How do you account for the lack of vitality and 
influence of the Nestorian Church in India? 

2.* Should you vote for a law that would require 
all the people of India to become Christians? 

3. Why do you think that Xavier's earlier methods 

failed in large results? 

4. Do you think that his later plan would have 

succeeded even if the "kings" had responded to 
his appeal? Give reasons for your views. 

5. Why were they such a failure? 

6.* What is the proper attitude for a government 
to maintain toward missionary work? 



11. ..Methods that Yielded Results. 

7. Name several valuable precedents laid down by 

the Danish missionaries and tell why you con- 
sider them so valuable. 

8. Do you not think that so gifted a man as was 

Schwartz was more needed at home? 

9. What one element in his character seems to 

you most important for a missionary? 

10.* What does Carey's example teach as to the 
qualities that are necessary and that are un- 
necessary to secure success? 

11. What is the relation of "expecting" to "attempt- 
ing" in Carey's motto? 



Christian Conquerors 163 

12. What lesson has this motto for yoru as to your 

work just now? 

13. What do you think of his wisdom in accepting 

secular positions under the circumstances? 

14. Was it wise for him to devote himself so 
largely to the study of languages? 

15.* What do you consider his five greatest achieve- 
ments in the order of importance? 

16. What does his life mean to you? 

17. What are the principal lessons from the life of 

Martyn? 

18. What was the most useful thing that he did? 
'19. Which of the elements of Judson's character 

seem to you most useful for a pioneer mis- 
sionary? 

20. What other desirable characteristics for such 
work can you mention? 

21. To what purpose were his great sufferings? 

22. What were his three greatest achievements? 

23. What lessons has the life of Simeon for home 
workers? 

24. What does Duff's case indicate as to the need 
of missionary work for children? 

25.* Why was Duff's work in Calcutta of such far- 
reaching importance? 

26. What reasons can you Suggest for his great 
success? 

27. How did his work at home compare in value 
with his work on the field? 

28.* Would Christianity at home have been richer 
or poorer if these men had not gone to the 
field? 

29.* What, in the lives of all these men, seems to 
you to have been the relative importance of 
earnest spirit and sound method? Defend 
your views. 



164 The Christian Conquest of India 

References for Advanced Study. — Chapter V 

l...WilUani Carey. 

Creegan: Great Missionaries of the Church, IV. 
Holcomb: Men of Might in India Missions, III. 
Thoburn: India and Malaysia, XV. 

II. . .Alexander Duff. 

Creegan: Pioneer Missionaries of the Church, IX. 
Holcomh: Men of Might in India Missions, IX. 

Ill . . . Adoniram Judson. 

Creegan: Great Missionaries of the Church, XV. 
Hadyn: American Heroes on Mission Fields, 317- 

336. 
Judson: Adoniram Judson, II, XIII. 

IV Missionary Call. 

Carus-Wilson : Irene Petrie, III. 

Judson: Adoniram Judson, II. 

Page: Henry Martyn, His Life and Labors, II. 

Thoburn: My Missionary Apprenticeship, I. 

Waterbury: The Reverend John Scudder, II. 



MISSIONARY AGENCIES 



CHAPTER VI 
MISSIONARY AGENCIES 

The missionary ideal is simple enough, and a Multiform 



young people going abroad to engage in missionary 
work may easily be excused if they suppose that 
their task will be an easy one, so far as the actual 
work is concerned. Hardships may be anticipated, 
and isolation from home and congenial associa- 
tions may appear inevitable, but the every-day 
duties which await them may seem as light as 
those of teachers in primary schools or preachers 
in remote country churches in the homeland. The 
actual situation, however, is very different. The 
missionary is confronted by a great variety of 
tasks, and as his work develops his responsibilities 
increase and new work in many forms seems to 
thrust itself upon him, until at times he begins 
to fear lest it overwhelm him. His converts fb- 
quire tender care; the children must be taught; 
means of grace must be provided ; the people must 
learn to read; and reading matter of some kind 
must be created for them. New life creates new 
wants and new desires, and the new world into 
which the people are entering soon proves to be 
a world of unexpected activity, and one which 
challenges all his resources, physical, mental, and 

167 



Work 



168 The Ckristian Conquest of India 

spiritual. His duties are multiform and it would 
be impossible to classify them accurately, but a 
few broad divisions may serve to indicate some of 
the leading departments of the general work.. 

Evangelistic 

Fundamental This is the oldcst and most fundamental mis- 
Activity sionary activity and must permeate all other forms 

of work. When the missionary is preaching the 
message of love he feels that he is following most 
closely in the footsteps of his Master. While there 
is a joy and exhilaration that comes from engag- 
ing in this work, yet it is fraught with great diffi- 
culties, because it is not an easy task to preach 
the gospel with power. 
New style of Some missionaries in India have adopted a new 
Preaching ^^^^q of preaching, and have been followed so 
closely by converts that the new method may 
become permanent. In the Oriental world a pub- 
lic speaker or teacher does not ordinarily rise to 
his feet. When our Saviour delivered his great 
Sermon on the Mount he was seated on the grass. 
When he preached on the seashore he was seated 
in a boat, and so in the synagogue, when about to 
begin a discourse, he sat down. The Oriental usage 
has much to commend it, especially when the au- 
dience is small. For the present, however, it seems 
probable that the Indian preachers will adopt the 
European usage, and with it the declamatory style 



Missionary Agencies 



169 



which is foreign to the traditions and instincts of 
the Orient. 

In a warm climate indoor services are not popu- 
lar unless the weather is unfavorable. Chapels, 
halls, and school buildings are used for these gath- 
erings. It is always much, easier to assemble an 
audience in the evening, with the attraction of 
good singing and bright lights, and the mission 
haU service has the advantage over the street 
meeting in that people are more apt to remain 
where they can sit on mats. 

In the absence of churches and buildings of any 
kind the missionary goes as his Master did, long 
ago, directly to the people. The most common 
place is the bazaar or business street where an 
audience can always be found. The melas or re- 
ligious festivals attract thousands, and to these 
multitudes the missionary usually goes with his 
native assistants. Both of these avenues of ap- 
proach furnish opportunities to the Christian 
worker who seeks to sow seed that will bear fruit- 
age later. As a rule the speaker must expect 
frecjuent interruptions. Questions are interjected, 
the crowds jostle and are noisy, objections are 
openly offered, and every effort is sometimes made 
to break up the meeting. Under these conditions 
it requires inflnite patience, wisdom, tact, ready 
wit. and a strong personality to hold a crowd in 
check. 



Indoor 
Services 



Bazaar 
and Mela 



170 



The Christian Conquest of India 



Village ^g j^jj^ety per cent, of the people live in villages, 

an important part of the work is that of traveling 
in bands of two or more from village to village 
during the dry season. It is customary to pitch 
a tent in a village a day or two and then pass on, 
or else to locate in a village for a period and make 
journeys to neighboring villages. In some cases, 
as part of this effort, systematic house to house 
visitation has been inaugurated. For this work 
experience has taught that it is much better to 
employ the native evangelists, as they have more 
easy access to the homes. Evangelistic bands from 
theological seminaries under the leadership of pro- 
fessors have been very successful in reaching thou- 
sands in their itineraries. 
stereopticon In reccnt years the magic lantern has been used 
with extraordinary effect in preaching after dark 
in the open air. As a rule a sheet is hung between 
two trees, and the people gather in crowds to lis- 
ten to the Sahib. The stereopticon views have 
the advantage of attracting the eye, thus quieting 
the crowd and permitting the speaker to make 
himself heard. The people seldom interrupt the 
preacher, and sometimes remain for hours listen- 
ing to a connected story. 
Native Pastors The missionary's work as a preacher is at best 
limited, and can only be regarded as introductory 
to the greater work of the multitude of native 
preachers who will be raised up as time passes and 
the work advances. The training of these native 



Missionary Agencies 171 

agents is of paramount importance, and it is an 
encouraging sign of the times that in some of the 
most fruitful missionary fields in India native 
preachers are coming to the front in increasing 
numbers, and that the average mental and spirit- 
ual tone of these men is steadily rising. As might 
be expected, a majority of these workers are men 
of limited culture, but they are so far in advance 
of the average of those to whom they minister 
that they are able to render important service to 
the growing Christian communities of the empire. 
A new agency has been introduced into India 
in women^s work, and in recent years a large and 
increasing force of efficient ladies have taken up 
the work of visiting the women in their homes and 
telling them of Christ and his salvation. This 
work is closely related to the evangelistic work, 
and is reaching thousands ; but it should be under- 
stood that after all, perhaps not more than one 
tenth of the women are inaccessible to the preach- 
ing of men. The women of India are more conser- 
vative in character than their husbands, and are 
more attached to the customs and superstitions of 
their religion. They really govern the religious 
life of their households. Lady missionaries can 
usually obtain entrance to a home by offering 
inducements of teaching fancy work or of instruc- 
tion in reading. Native Bible women are being 
used more widely and are a mighty force in dis- 
seminating Scriptural knowledge among their 



"Women's 
Work 



Mission 



172 The Christian Conquest of India 

sisters. "In the town of Madura alone thirty-one 
Bible women have access to 1,000 non-Christian 
homes where Bible instruction is gladly received."' 
Teiugu One of the most successful missions is that among 
the Telugus. (This work is unusually encourag- 
ing because they are a people strongly inclined 
toward Hinduism. They are located largely in 
the Madras Presidency and the Deccan. Dr. Day 
reached ISTellore in 1840, one hundred and eight 
miles north of Madras. His method of work was 
preeminently evangelistic, preaching the gospel in 
season and out of season, on the streets and in the 
surrounding country. During the first twenty-five 
5^ears the results were meager and the work was 
almost wrecked by the failure of the health of the 
missionaries. It was only their intense faith that 
prevented the abandonment of the field. A mem- 
orable date in the history of the mission is Janu- 
ary 1, 1854, when Mr. and Mrs. Jewett with three 
native workers met near Ongole to pray for a mis- 
sionary. The answer came ten years later in" Mr. 
and Mrs. John E. Clough. Not long after their 
arrival there was an awakening which increased 
in magnitude for a number of years, reaching its 
height in 1878, when 9,606 were added, 2,222 of 
whom were baptized in a single day. The latest 
statistics report 54,649 communicants, 1,470 
native workers, and 129 organized native churches 
connected with 29 stations. Two striking features 
'Jones, India's Prohlem: Krishna or Christ, 257. 




Nagercoil Church, Self-supporting and Self-governing 




Vinton Memorial Church 
Erected by Natives at Rangoon, Burma, at a cost of $30,000 



Missionary Agencies 173 

in connection with this mission are the organiza- 
tion of a native missionary society in 1891, and 
the sending of one of their strongest evangelists 
to the Telugus who have emigrated to Natal, 
South Africa. 

Educational 

Our Saviour^s commission to his disciples linked The saviour 
preaching and teaching together as twin agencies commission 
in the evangelization of the world, but the teach- 
ing enjoined upon them no doubt was intended to 
refer chiefly to spiritual instruction. The great 
truths were to be proclaimed abroad, while the 
details were to be expounded more privately by 
well-grounded and capable teachers. In the main 
the same procedure should be followed now, and 
to a greater or less extent it is followed wherever 
spiritual Christianity is making headway against 
the world. 

In India, however, the word teaching must Necessity of 
include more than spiritual instruction. The con- ^'^^t^^'^tion 
verts have no Bible and no religious books. 
Indeed, with very rare exceptions, they have no 
books at all. They must be taught, and the work 
must be taken in hand at once. But nearly all 
of the converts are so poor that they can do noth- 
ing whatever in the way of self-help. They cannot 
buy a book, no matter how cheap, and in most 
cases it is as much as can be hoped for if the 



Educational 
Movement 



174 The Christian Conquest of India 

parents can afford to let their children attend 
school for an hour or two daily. It is a striking 
sight — sometimes amusing and sometimes touch- 
ing — to see boys gathered under a tree, and mak- 
ing letters and figures in the sand, instead of 
writing them on a slate or in a copybook. Thou- 
sands of poor people, not all children by any 
means, are to-day struggling to acquire the barest 
rudiments of an education by methods so pitifully 
primitive that they sometimes provoke us to mirth, 
when they ought to move us to tears. 
Modern But all the cducatioual work of the Indian mis- 

sionary is by no means of this primitive character. 
At an early day it was perceived that modern edu- 
cation might be utilized so as to be made a most 
useful missionary agency. Dr. Carey, the great 
founder of the modern missionary enterprise, did 
not fail to realize the importance of education 
as a missionary agency, and at a later day Dr. Duff 
introduced the modern educational movement into 
India, which resulted in the adoption of his plan 
by the British Government, with the religious 
phase omitted. Aside from religious interests 
altogether the missionary enterprise has thus 
proved to be a source of untold blessing to the 
Indian empire, and as time passes it will become 
more and more evident to the world that in seek- 
ing to lead the people of India to a knowledge of 
Christ, the missionaries really made possible the 
intellectual enlightenment of a great empire. For 



Missionary Agencies 



175 



more than a century missionaries have patiently 
followed in the path at first marked out, and at 
the present day nearly every society operating in 
India nses education as a means of influencing the 
non-Christian communit}^, or of strengthening 
and developing the growing host of those who have 
accepted the Christian faith. 

The government of India has taken up the stu- 
pendous task of educating the people of India, but 
the work is beset with difficulties of many kinds, 
and it will be many years before even a large pro- 
portion of the people of the country can be induced 
to send their children to school. From one point 
of view the situation is unsatisfactory and the out- 
look discouraging, but when the present is com- 
pared with the not very distant past, the situation 
appears much more hopeful. When the writer 
went to India in 1859, there were only 2,000 pub- 
lic schools in all India, and the total attendance of 
pupils of all ages was less than 200,000. During 
these years the number of schools has increased to 
155,000, and the number of pupils has increased 
to nearly 5,000,000. These figures certainly indi- 
cate very great progress and ought to be accepted 
as encouraging, even though we are reminded of 
the fact that nineteen-twentieths of the people can 
neither read nor write, and that less than five per 
cent, of those of school age are actually in school. 

The most striking feature of educational work 
in India has been the extraordinary progress made 



Progress of 
Education 



Education 

Among 

Women 



176 The Christian Conquest of India 

among the women. Fifty years ago the possibility 
of introducing education among the women of 
India had barely been mentioned, and experienced 
missionaries regarded the idea as wholly imprac- 
ticable. Even Dr. Duff had said that "one might 
as well try to scale a wall fifty miles high.^^ The 
chief trouble was found in the invincible notion 
current among men in India that women were 
mentally defective and could not learn, no matter 
how carefully they were taught. Added to this 
was an equally invincible belief that any attempt 
to teach them would endanger their morals, and 
in any case the effect would be perilous to the repu- 
tation and general interests of the family con- 
cerned. To-day all fears have been quieted by the 
more than half a million of girls and women who 
are enrolled in the educational institutions of the 
empire, a number of whom have vindicated their 
scholarship by receiving university honors. 
Results of The question may be asked, why missionary 
societies shall continue to support schools and col- 
leges when the government is carrying out such an 
aggressive educational policy? Close touch with 
these secular institutions has revealed the fact that 
where religious neutrality is maintained the stu- 
dents are simply drifting from their former faith 
to materialism and atheism. As a Brahman said 
not long since : '^There are many Brahmans who 
are baptized in heart. Christian education is 
working mighty changes in the character and life 



Secular 
Education 



Missionary Agencies 177 

of the Hindu community. Young men who have 
been educated in the government schools come out 
atheists and are unreliable in character. . . . The 
young men whom the missionaries educate come 
from the schools with faith in God and satisfactory 
stability of character.^^ Modern education apart 
from Christianity destroys but does not build up 
faith. Therefore it would be a shortsighted and 
disastrous policy to discontinue educational 
missions. 

There are some persons who question the expen- "Why do 
diture of money in maintaining educational insti- W(^rk^^°"^ 
tutions on the ground that they are not an evan- 
gelistic agency. In reply to this criticism, Dr. 
Jones after a tested experience in India writes : "I 
fearlessly maintain that more conversions take 
place and more accessions are made through 
schools than through any other agency apart from 
the Christian Church itself."^ Schools and col- 
leges are necessary to properly train a native 
agency upon whom must fall the greater part of 
the evangelization of the empire, and the native 
Christian community must have other educated 
leaders if Christianity is to become a vital force. 
Then, too, a higher class of students are attracted 
to colleges, who would never consent to listen to 
the gospel on the street or enter a church. Caste 
is also Being broken down because in a number of 
institutions high caste students are being taught 
^Jones, India's Prohlem: Krishna or Christ, 249. 



178 The Christian Conquest of India 

by low caste instructors. In nearly all missionary 
institutions the daily Bible class is a part of the 
regular course, and if students are not converted 
while in attendance, they usually go forth from 
college into business or professional life with their 
former faith disintegrated and their ideals revolu- 
tionized by contact with Christian teaching. 
The American The American College at Madura is a type of 
College Christian institution that is leavening a section 

in southern India with the spirit of Christianity. 
Its departments are: College, Theological, Nor- 
mal, High and Lower schools, and Industrial. It 
is affiliated with the Madras University and 
receives an annual grant from the government. 
The faculty numbers fifty-two and there are 1,030 
in attendance from thirty-five castes. Two fifths 
are Hindus and about one half of these are 
Brahmans, while the remainder are Mohamme- 
dans and aborigines. The majority who have gone 
out from the college are Christians, and the re- 
mainder were permeated with the spirit of Christ. 
As a further result of the work of this college, 232 
have entered distinctively Christian work, 600 are 
teachers, a large number are in the government 
service, others are editors, lawyers, and some have 
gone into agriculture and other industries. They 
are scattered in northern and southern India and 
in Burma and Ceylon, and are taking an active 
part in rightly shaping the destiny of the empire. 




College Hall of Madura Mission 



rii. I ti if i 1 



M »y .')))) !^y)) iiXO) ))))) 




Forir.an Christian College, Lahore 
Opening of Newton Hall, February 5, 1903 



Missionary Agencies 



179 



Literary 

If the people of India are ever to become an importance of 
intelligent and educated people, provision must be press"°**°^' 
made* for supplying them with devotional books 
and text-books suited to their stage of progress 
and full of the inspiration which the myriads of 
the great Eastern world need at this momentous 
era of the world's progress. Dr. Carey appreciated 
the power of the press, and with characteristic 
foresight became the pioneer printer of all India. 
His printing-press at Serampur was the first one 
established in India, and although it has long 
since ceased to exist as the Serampore press, it is 
practically represented by the Baptist Mission 
Press of Calcutta, an institution which has had a 
long period of usefulness. Fifty-three publishing 
houses, some older and others of recent origin, 
have been established at important centers of popu- 
lation and influence, and are printing one hundred 
and forty-seven newspapers and magazines for the 
Christian people, besides thousands of leaflets, 
books, and other literature. 

For some reason missionary societies on both 
sides of the Atlantic have failed thus far to appre- 
ciate the power of the printing-press. This is the 
more unfortunate so far as India is concerned, 
because the educated leaders of the Indian commu- 
nity have been quick to avail themselves of the 
power which it puts in their hands, and often it 



Lack of 

Appreciation 



180 The Christian Conquest of India 



Bible and 
Tract Societies 



Value of 
Literature 



Influence 
of a Gospel 



happens that the streets are placarded with notices 

of books and pamphlets which are hostile to Chris- 
tianity, while hardly a line in defense of the truth 
can be obtained. The speeches of Ingersoll and 
Bradlangh with others of like kind have been scat- 
tered far and wide throughout the Eastern world. 
The propagation of theosophy was chiefly effected 
through the press, and the exposure and overthrow 
of the imposture may be credited to the same 
agency. Any year or any day new issues may arise 
— indeed new issues are sure to arise — and for 
these the defenders of the truth and the guides 
of the Church of the future should always be 
prepared. 

The Bible Society, Tract Society, and Christian 
Literature Society are valuable auxiliaries in the 
distribution of good literature among the people. 
These organizations have expended large sums of 
money in the translation, revision, and circulation 
of the Scriptures. They have also furnished many 
exceedingly useful tracts, illustrating and defend- 
ing the Christian religion. 

The influence of the printed page is invaluable 
in the present propaganda both among Christians 
and non-Christians, and probably no phase of 
activity encourages larger hopes than the distribu- 
tion of wholesome literature among India's people. 

The following shows the effective power of 
Christian literature: "It is said that one of the 
vernacular versions of the Gospels accidentally fell 



Missionary Agencies 181 

into the hands of a Mohammedan Moulvi, or 
teacher, in North India. It had been prepared 
and published by the Bible Society. The Mussul- 
man read the book with eagerness, chiefly with a 
view to find new arguments against the divinity of 
our Lord and the heavenly source of our faith. 
But as he read, he was so impressed with the won- 
derful narrative and the unique beauty of the 
character of our Lord, that he surrendered himself 
to him as his Saviour and found in him peace and 
rest. Somewhat later he met a Hindu fakir, 
named diet Eam, who was earnestly in search of 
the truth. The Mohammedan convert joyfully 
told him of his newly found Saviour and gave him 
his copy of the New Testament that he might find 
for himself the same blessing. The Holy Spirit 
carried the gospel message of life into his heart 
also, and he accepted Christ and at once began ta 
preach him to his friends and neighbors. This 
work he performed faithfully; and he gathered 
around himself many who accepted this short 
creed : 'I believe in Jesus Christ the Son of Mary,. 
and in the Holy Ghost, and in the Father to whom 
prayer should be made, and in the Bible through 
which salvation is to be received.' Chet Ram died 
some time ago; but there are to-day found scat- 
tered through the villages of North India thou- 
sands of his followers who subscribed to his brief 
creed and who always carry upon their persons a 
copy of the Scriptures. So far as I know, these 



-Medical Aid 



182 The Christian Conquest of India 

people have never come into contact with Chris- 
tian workers, but have been led simply through a 
study of God's Word, under the guidance of God's 
Spirit, unto Christ the Saviour oi the world." ^ 

Medical WorTc 

Demands for Almost all missionaries, no matter in what part 
of the world their lot may be cast or whether they 
have any medical knowledge or not, will at times 
be almost compelled to distribute medicine among 
the sick, and to act the part of the Good Samari- 
tan in various ways. Go where he may the average 
missionary will find human suffering and human 
helplessness, and he will certainly have ever-recur- 
ring appeals made to him for medical help. If he 
responds to these appeals, as he almost certainly 
will, he may sometimes be repaid with ingratitude, 
but it is much more probable that his kindness will 
win favor for him and prove of service in his 
missionary work. Observing this result, many 
missionaries naturally have become impressed 
with the idea of establishing medical missions, 
involving the sending out of medical men and 
women who are to use their medical skill as a 
means of helping multitudes of helpless people, 
and at the same time making Christ known to 
them, under circumstances which are naturally 
calculated to impress them favorably. This idea 
^ Jones, India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 334. 



Missionary Agencies 



183 



Aid to 
Missions 



has met with much favor, and medical missiona- 
ries, men and women, are now in many parts of 
India. 

Medical missions have added mnch to the gen- 
eral reputation of the missionaries among the 
people, and have helped the missionary to emulate 
his Master in relieving a large amount of physical 
suffering. They have given Christianity a better 
standing among the people by disarming preju- 
dices and removing hostility. They have also been 
the means of breaking down caste and bringing 
many people within direct hearing of the gospel. 
Through the women workers they have brought 
relief to the inmates of Oriental zenanas, a class 
for whom no proper medical help had ever been 
provided before the advent of the missionaries. 
In their good work the medical missionaries have 
been encouraged and in some cases assisted by the 
government officials, and in the more remote dis- 
tricts help would be materially increased if the 
missionary societies could be depended on to fill 
vacancies as they occur and to carry on the good 
work without interruption. 

In all the records of missionary history no story women 
has been more remarkable than that which tells 
of the sending of medical lady missionaries to 
India. Previous to 1870^ there was not a single 

^Clara A. Swain, M.D., was sent to India by the 
Women's Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church in 1869, arriving in Bareilly, Jan. 
20, 1870. 



Physicians 



184 The Cliristian Conquest of India 

medical lady in all the non-Christian world, and 
when it was proposed to send medical women as 
missionaries to India, many influential parties 
opposed the movement, and not a few denounced 
it as impracticable, if not dangerous. But the 
tolerant and intelligent government of the day 
approved the experiment, and a very short trial 
sufficed to demonstrate the unqualified success of 
the experiment. The medical ladies were received 
without hesitation by all classes and castes, and 
before many years had passed, young ladies were 
admitted as students into the government medical 
colleges of the country, and have now won recog- 
nition as efficient practitioners. 

Xotwithstanding the excellent efforts made by 
Need for -^i^^ o-Qvemment to supplv medical aid. Dr. Wan- 

Medical "" , ^ i -n \ ^ -n 

Missions less writes that there are still 5b6,000 villages 
with a population of five hundred or less and thou- 
sands of larger villages and towns without a resi- 
dent educated physician. Even in the city of Cal- 
cutta, which is the best supplied with physicians 
of any in India, three out of every five die unat- 
tended by physicians."^ "When one remembers the 
adhesion of the masses to the superstition that 
sickness is an expression of the anger of the gods 
or goddesses, and realizes that between seven and 
eight millions die annually, it is not difficult to 
believe in the need of skilled physicians for the 
country. 

^The Missionarif Review of the World. May. 1905. 



Missionary Agencies 185 

How diversified are the attending benefits may Typical 
be learned from this scene : "first of aU there ?J°^'°f ^' ^ 

Medical 

came the servic-e, with the assembled patients in Mission 
the front of the yeranda. The patients listened to 
the Doctor's address which lasted about fi.fteen 
minutes. There was a poor Brahman who had 
come some fifteen miles, next to him was a poor 
low-c-aste man, next to him was a Hindn merchant, 
over there was a Parsee clerk from Bombay, and 
next to him a man of the agrienltnral caste, all 
drawn by ihe one need to hear the same gospel and 
to receive the treatment each required. After the 
service the patients came in tnm to see the doctor. 
Their ailments were varied, though eye and skin 
diseases predominated. All displayed gratitude 
lor the help given, and one poor fellow^ an old 
man, went down on the ground before Dr. Thomas, 
almost worshipiQg him for what he had done for 
him. Truly it is a blessed work !"^ 

The Miraj Medical Mission in the Bombay Miraj Medical 
Presidency, although not the largest in India, pre- Mission 
sents features that are typical and ideal. The 
work includes a hospital with sixty-five beds, a 
detached dispensary for outdoor patients, a medi- 
cal school for training Indian Christian young 
men, and a leper asylum. In one year, 1,313 
in-patients were treated and more than 17,000 
rec-eived treatment at the dispensary from between 

^The Missionary Herald of t?ie Bcntist Missionary 
Society March. 1906. 



186 The Christian Conquest of India 

six and seven hundred villages in five provincial 
districts. During this same year 1,871 surgical 
operations were performed, 415 being for the 
removal of cataract. In connection with this hospi- 
tal there is also a European ward with a cottage for 
sick missionaries. The medical school with a four- 
year curriculum, is training Indian Christians for 
the work of medical assistants. One of the last 
class is a Brahman and is now the native physician 
in charge of Pandita Kamabai's institution for 
girl-widows. The entire medical staff, foreign and 
native, are Christians and take turn in conducting 
a twenty-minute noonday service in the wards. 
All who come to the mission receive a Christian 
tract and many buy Gospels and Christian books, 
while to all the gospel is preached or taught. The 
students of the medical school have organized a 
Young Men's Christian Association, and are 
actively engaged in missionary work among their 
own people. This work through its deeds of mercy 
is winning the favor of thousands and is commend- 
ing the Christian religion to all classes in a very 
practical way. Said a prominent Mohammedan, 
"It is these medical missionaries who are winning 
-the hearts and confidence of our people. If we do 
not do as they do, we will soon lose our hold upon 
our own people. We must build hospitals and care 
for the sick and dying if we wish to keep our reli- 
gion alive." "^ 
^Tlie Assembly Herald, April, 1905. 



Missionary Agencies 



187 



Industrial 



Another missionary agency is attracting atten- 
tion at the present time. Converts are multiply- 
ing somewhat rapidly, and most of them are 
extremely poor. The country is densely popu- 
lated; every avenue of labor is crowded; wages 
are so low as to seem almost nominal; famines 
have filled the orphanages with boys and girls who 
are approaching adult years and the missionaries 
are compelled to consider the question of finding 
employment for a constantly increasing number 
of people. How can they provide work for so 
many ? \ATiat new industries can they introduce ? 
Can they organize industrial schools and make 
them self-supporting? Can the missionary be- 
come a mechanic, or will it be better to send home 
for laymen who will give their exclusive attention 
to this kind of work ? Will it be possible to bene- 
fit the country and help the people in a general 
way, while still devoting the chief attention to the 
Christian youths and the Christian community? 
These and other questions of the kind are pressing 
themselves upon the attention of thoughtful mis- 
sionaries in many parts of the empire, and demand 
the attention of friends of missions in all lands. 

Of late years many attempts have been made to 
meet this demand for employment, but not by any 
means with uniform success. Difficulties and 
obstacles abound, and it is not strange that many 



Necessity for 

Industrisd 

Missions 



Difficulties 
in the Work: 



for Success 



188 The ChriGtian Conquest of India 

ardent friends of the movement become dis- 
couraged. At the outset most of the converts are 
unaccustomed to habits of steady labor. Adults 
do not at first take kindly to work which is new to 
them. Boys become foolish and resent discipline. 
Imperfect work commands reduced pay. New 
associations are distasteful, and finally, poor 
human nature is weak, and average people in our 
world are very prone to become unreasonable and 
refuse to cooperate in efforts made to do them 
good; so oftentimes, in one way or another, many 
of these efforts fail. 
Requirements But it should not be assumcd that all such 
efforts must fail, or that the experiments made in 
the past have been sufficient in all their bearings. 
As a matter of fact, the question in all its broad 
bearings has hardly been tested at all. The fail- 
ures of the past have been valuable for the lessons 
which they have taught, and some of the mistakes 
made will serve a good purpose to guide those who 
are to lead in coming days. One thing which is 
needed in such attempts is capital. Money is abso- 
lutely necessary. Time and patience also are fac- 
tors in the problem. It is seldom best for a mis- 
sionary to combine all offices in his own person. 
He cannot direct everything, and when his hands 
and heart are already full, he should not dream of 
assuming other tasks sufficient to fill the heart 
and hands of another man quite equal to himself. 
Up to date very few missionaries in India have 



Missionary Agencies 



189 



Some 

Occupations 

Taught 



been assigned to the exclusive task of directing 
experiments in the line of industrial missions. 

It is impossible to enumerate the various indus- 
tries that are emphasized, because of the different 
conditions that must be met by the missionaries. 
As a rule the girls and women are taught cooking, 
spinning, weaving, laundry work, needle work, 
and embroidering, while the boys and men are 
instructed in carpentry, shoemaking, tailoring, 
printing, bookbinding, tile and brickmaking, agri- 
culture, and other trades. 

The Basel Evangelical Mission has probably Basel 
accomplished more in this phase of activity than mIs^oh* 
any other mission in the country. They have suc- 
ceeded in inventing and manufacturing a superior 
quality of cloth and tile, that have found a ready 
market in India. They have also taught carpen- 
try, tailoring, and bookbinding to good advantage, 
and the Mission has proved that self-support is 
possible when the work is conducted by efficient 
Christian men from Europe. Besides being able 
to provide a livelihood for a large number of 
natives at their stations, the Indians trained in 
their schools have entered some of the trades and 
have made more than a living. The missionaries 
are able to point with pride to a number of their 
converts who own comfortable houses and have a 
bank account. 



190 The Christian Conquest of India 
Philanthropic Work 
Famine Relief ^g ^ result of the terrible famines which occur 
frequently, missionaries have found themselves in 
the presence of large numbers of orphans. These 
Christian workers would not be true to the holy 
instincts which inspire them, if the spectacle of 
these helpless and often dying children did not 
move them to immediate efforts for their relief and 
permanent care for them, as they j&nd them in 
every town or village and along every public high- 
way. To feed them when found would relieve a 
present want, but nothing short of permanent care 
can save them. The result might have been pre- 
dicted by any one who knows the meaning of 
Christian sympathy, or understands the imperative 
sense of duty which such sympathy creates. The 
children are received as permanent wards, and in 
this way scores of Christian orphanages have been 
founded and equipped for a career of practical 
service in different parts of India. 
«?!-^** °^ The good work done by these institutions has 
proved a threefold blessing to the country. First, 
it has rescued and saved thousands of perishing 
little ones. In the second place, it has created a 
large number of permanent institutions for the 
rescue and training of orphan and helpless chil- 
dren of all grades. Lastly, it has led to the train- 
ing of large numbers of young people who are able 
to occupy positions of usefulness among their 
countrymen. These institutions have also served 



Work 




Young Men's Christian Association Building, Madras 




Isabella Thoburn College, Lucknow 



Missionary Agencies 191 

as models for boarding and training schools, in 
which thousands of the sons and daughters of the 
land are receiving training and instruction, while 
the communities in which the schools are situated 
receive the benefit of the light and better spirit 
which emanates from such an agency. 

Young Men's Christian Association 

At the invitation of the missionaries of the invited to 
evangelical churches of Madras, the International 
Committee of the Young Men^s Christian Associ- 
ation sent out Mr. David McConaughy in October, 
1889, to establish the first Association among the 
young men of that city. The growth of this work, 
while phenomenal, has been substantial, and 
according to the latest statistics there are 110 
Associations with a membership of 6,957. 

Its field of activity is among Europeans and Fields of 
Indians. It owns sixteen buildings valued at ^ ^^* ^ 
$400,000, and its secretaries are at work among 
the students, railroad men, civilians and British 
officials, and in the army. It is providing health- 
ful social surroundings, clean athletic exercises, 
and is ministering to the spiritual needs of India's 
young men through religious meetings and Bible 
study classes 

Perhaps the most strategic work is among the Work Among 
students in the great educational centers where 
agnosticism and vice are rife. Here the Associa- 
tion, because of its interdenominational character 



192 The Christian Conquest of India 

and its vast experience among the students in 
many lands, is doing a unique work. Calcutta 
University is the largest student center, having 
more men registered than Harvard, Yale, Prince- 
ton, and Toronto. In addition to the 12,000 
young men in the colleges, there are 30,000 pupils 
in the high schools of Calcutta. In these and 
other student centers, the Association conducts 
hostels or boarding clubs, and maintains Bible 
classes, lectures, and indoor and outdoor religious 
meetings. In the Association hostels, Hindus of 
various castes and Mohammedans eat at the same 
table. The value of this work is better expressed 
by the words of a Brahman who said to one of 
the secretaries : "I would much rather have him 
(his son) live at the Association and lose his caste 
but keep his character, than to have him live with 
holy relatives, adhere to the forms of caste, and 
lose his character.^' 
JJ^e^ _, , _ Prominent government officials, among them 
Sir Donald Eraser, Governor of Bombay, are serv- 
ing as presidents of local Associations. In recog- 
nition of the educational work of the Calcutta Col- 
lege and Boys' branches, the Government of Ben- 
gal has voted $600 annually, and for the work 
among the railroad men of Jamalpur the East 
India Railway has provided the building and sec- 
retarial residence for the Association. Wherever 
the Association has entered it has won the hearty 
approval of those in authority. 



Recognition 



Missionary Agencies 193 

The Decennial Missionary Conference in Madras Testimony of 
in 190.3, the most representative gathering of Missionaries 
Protestant missionaries ever held in India, ex- 
pressed its appreciation of the work of the Young 
Men's Christian Association in the-following reso- 
lution : "The Conference hereby records its hearty 
and thorough appreciation of the work of the 
Young Men's Christian Association in India, 
Burma, and Ceylon. The Conference commends 
its general principles and methods, and affection- 
ately accords to those engaged in its work its 
prayers and fellowship, and emphasizes the strong 
claim which the Young Men's Christian Associa- 
tion work in India has already established upon 
the prayers, the sympathy, and support of the 
home churches." 

Young People's WorJc 

It is only in recent years that the activities of importance of 
young people have become a vital force both in the ^°n^g"^™°°^ 
homeland and foreign field. To-day, as never 
before, the church has set its heart upon gripping 
the young people. The hope of the church in 
India and elsewhere is in its youth, and the 
organizations that can best win the young men 
and young women of the empire for the Master 
and direct them in Christian service, will be ren- 
dering the greatest service for the kingdom. It 
is becoming more evident that the labor lavished 



194 The Christian Conquest of India 

upon this generation of young people in India will 
bear the most fruitage. The young are more 
receptive, more responsive and plastic, and cling 
less tenaciously to their ancestral faith than those 
of more mature years. Some of the organizations 
that are rendering valuable help in the vv^ork of 
evangelization are the Young People's Society of 
Christian Endeavor, the Baptist Young People's 
Union, the Epworth League, the Sunday-school, 
and the Young Women's Christian Association. 

Ideal Plan jj^ somc missious the evangelistic agency has 
been overshadowed by some other department of 
activity. While the importance of the other agen- 
cies must not be minimized, the neglect of pre- 
senting the gospel would be disastrous to the whole 
missionary enterprise. Among the people every 
effort must be made to heal their physical ills, to 
care for them in distress, to teach them the means 
of obtaining an honest living, to raise up- an intel- 
ligent and efficient leadership, yet it must be borne 
in mind that the dominating purpose of missions 
is to make Christ preeminent in the lives of the 
millions of India. If any department may be 

, magnified it is the evangelistic, but unquestionably 

the wiser plan is to have all these vital agencies 
permeated with the spirit of winning the alle- 
giance of the people to the Master. 



Missionary Agencies 195 

QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER TI 

Am: To Re-vltze tee Need axd Yalije of the 
Vabious Foe:>is of ^oek 

l...Tlie Scope of Foreign Missions. 

1.* What in general dees ihe work of foreign 
missions include and what does it not include? 
2.* What is its ultimate object? 

3. Should such work as Dr. Torrey's in Australia 

be supported by foreign mission funds? Why 
not? 

4. Under what circumstances ought foreign mission 

boards to consider their work in a certain 
country to be completed? 

II.. .Evangelistic Work. 

5.* What are the special contributions that evan- 
gelistic work makes toward realizing the ulti- 
mate object of foreign missions? TvTiat are 
its limitations? 

6.* What preparation should you consider nece&- 
S3.TY in order to become a successful evange- 
list in India? 

7. Tell how you think you should begin to address 
a street crowd? 

8.* State what policy you should adopt in regard 
to native helpers, and give reasons? 

9. If you had a sister in an Indian zenana what 

would be your attitude toward women's work? 

10. Give several reasons why work by and for 
women is especially needed in India. 

111. . .Educational Vorl'. 
11.* Why is educational work necessary if the ulti- 
mate object of foreign missions is to be at- 
tained? 



196 The Christian Conquest of India 

12. What is the least education that should be im- 

parted to an illiterate native convert? 

13. Should more than this be done for the children 

of such a convert? 

14. How much education ought a native pastor to 

have, and why? 

15. What arguments can you give for educating 
the Christian community? 

16.* To what extent should our education be 
modified to meet the needs of Indian society? 

17.* Would missionary colleges be justified in re- 
ceiving non-Christians if it could be shown 
that none of them were converted during their 
course? Defend your views. 

18. Are our boards warranted in maintaining col- 
leges in India? 

1^ .. .Literary Work. 

19. Try to estimate how different your life would 
be if you had never read any Christian litera- 
ture. 

20. Which of the two has the greater privileges 
apart from literature, the American or the 
Indian convert? 

21. Mention some advantages peculiar to the 
printed page. 

22. Can you imagine a strong church built up 
without it? 

23.* Mention some kinds of Christian literature 
that you think would be especially useful. 

V. . .Medical Worlc. 

24.* Give five arguments for medical missions. 
25. Present as strikingly as you can the relative 
need for more physicians in America and in 
India. 



Missionary Agencies 197 

26.* State in detail methods by which medical 
missions can be made most effective as an 
evengelistic agency. 

Yl. . .Industrial Work. 

27. What seem to you to be the principal argu- 
ments against industrial missions? 
28 What are the principal reasons in its favor? 

29. How will it contribute to the ultimate object of 

foreign missions? 

VII.. .Other Forms. 

30. Try to imagine the feelings with which you as 

a missionary should discover in a famine- 
visited village tv.-enty starving orphans? 

31. How, under such circumstances, should you 
feel toward the Christian wealth in America? 

82. Give several reasons for the value of young 
people's work in India. 

33. Try to picture the temptations and the moral 
resources of the average Oriental student. 

34. What is the special value of Young Men's 
Christian Association work to the Church? 

35. If you were a thoughtful Hindu which of these 

forms of missionary work would most attract 
you toward Christianity? 
36.* What would you consider to be the best use of 
these various methods of work, if you had ten 
missionaries in a parish of a million people? 

REFERE^'CES FOR ADVANCED SXUDT. CHAPTER VI 

I. . .Evangelistic. 

Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 1S2-1S9. 
Chamberlain: In the Tiger Jungle, IX. 
Stewart: Life and Work in India, XXI. 
Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 242- 
248. 



198 The Christian Conquest of India 

Smith: Ttie Conversion of India, 169, 178. 
Stock: Notes on India for Missionary Students, 
VII. 

II. . .Educational. 

Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 194-201. 
Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 248, 

252. 
Stock: Notes on India for Missionary Students, 46, 

59, 60, 79. 
Students and the Modern Missionary Crusade, 376- 

378. 

III. . .Medical. 

Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 202-207. 
Ecumenical Missionary Conference Report, VoL 

I— 189, 202, 217, 220, 224. 
Students and the Modern Missionary Crusade, 

372-375. 

IV. . .Literature Work and Value of Literature. 
Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 207-209. 
Chamberlain: In the Tiger Jungle, VI. 
Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 252- 

255, 
Smith: The Conversion of India, 179. 

\...The Work of the Young Men's Christian Asso- 
ciation in India. 

"India's Young Men, Their Perils and Safeguards," 
5 cents. 

International Committee, Young Men's Christian 
Association, 3 West Twenty-ninth Street, New 
York City. 

Yl...The Work of the American Bible Society. 
For literature write to the American Bible Society, 
Bible House, New York City. 



PROBLEMS 



CHAPTER YII 

PROBLEMS 

It is a very great mistake to suppose, as many Revolutionary 
intelligent persons seem to do, that the modern ^^^!^^°^ . 
missionary, having to work among simple and 
ignorant people, is seldom called npon to deal with 
difficult problems. Throughout his career he finds 
himself face to face with many very strange and 
difficult questions, and these are often of such a 
character that nothing in his own experience or 
that of other workers of other lands can suggest 
any help to him in his perplexity. Missionaries 
in ancient lands like India and China can appreci- 
ate this statement in full measure. The traditions 
of the people have the force of ancient laws, and 
the laws have all the sanctity of religious obliga- 
tions. To introduce a simple Christian principle 
often seems like an attempt to overthrow the gov- 
ernment, or to plunge the people into the unknown 
dangers of a great revolution. The simplest pos- 
sible proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ 
to a people like the Chinese or Indians is in reality 
revolutionary, but fortunately its full import is 
not often understood clearly ; in fact is not always 
clearly perceived even by the missionary himself. 

201 



202 The Christian Conquest of India 

Problem Take foF instance the problem of caste. In the 
mind of the orthodox Hindu it means that at least 
sixty millions of the people of India shall never 
learn to read, shall never enjoy the rights of citi- 
zenship, shall never enter respectable society, shall 
never have the right of selecting a trade by their 
own free choice, and shall never fail to recognize 
the superior social privileges of those who have a 
traditional claim to a higher rank. What attitude 
shall the missionary assume toward this question? 
Shall he violently denounce its injustice? Shall 
he exhort the timid and depressed low caste man 
to resist his oppressors and contend for his rights ? 
Or shall he preach a gospel of patience, a gospel of 
hope, and meanwhile introduce the elements of a 
better life among the people ? 

Some of the early missionaries tried the experi- 
Toward Caste mcut of tolerating caste in the hope that it would 
gradually be given up, but in this hope they were 
sadly disappointed. Its rules and its spirit have 
been so woven into the very fabric of Hindu soci- 
ety that no possible word of command can separate 
the two. The system will disappear in time from 
the church, as the somewhat similar system of 
Judaism disappeared, but for the present, the 
Christian missionary and the Christian Church in 
India are concerned to know how to deal with it. 
The question demands very wise and very cautious 
treatment, and in dealing with it care should be 
taken not to demand or to try to enforce too many 



Attitude of 
Missionary 



Problems 



203 



or too rigid changes, but on the other hand every- 
thing in which it oppresses the poor and lowly, 
everything which infringes upon civil and social 
right, everything which denies that personal free- 
dom which is the common heritage of all men, 
should be resisted and treated as an element of 
hostility to our common Christianity. When per- 
sonal liberty of thought and action is assured, a 
wise missionary will not insist on social changes 
which do violence to those personal preferences 
which are peculiar to all men. In other words, 
personal preferences must be free, and converts to 
Christianity must be taught that they have no 
right to force their society upon persons who do 
not desire it. 

Some excellent missionaries, in earlier years. Failure of ai 
became so anxious to wipe out every trace of caste Experiment 
feeling, that they invited cultured and refined men 
to meet recent converts who had been common 
scavengers at an evening dinner. The guests 
accepted the invitation, but the dinner was a dis- 
mal failure. It was simply a social blunder and 
would have been so regarded in any part of the 
world. 

The system of caste is a crushing incubus to the Depressed 
people of India, and stands directly in the way Elevated 
of a missionary who wishes to see a great Chris- 
tian empire raised up in southern Asia. But in 
this noble purpose it will be neither wise nor well 
to attempt too much, or to be in too great haste, 



204 The Christian Conquest of India 

or to confuse the issues which are at stake. The 
Sudra cannot be forced upward nor the Brahman 
crushed down into a position of social humiliation, 
but both can meet upon a common plane of per- 
sonal right and religious privilege. The caste 
problem can be most easily solved by bringing ele- 
vating influences to bear upon the low caste people, 
rather than by wearisome and fruitless efforts to 
induce the high caste people to abandon the 
special privileges and social distinction which they 
have inherited from their ancestors through a long 
series of centuries. In other words, the real prob- 
lem involved in the caste question in India is not 
tliat of annulling the false claims of the higher 
castes, but rather that of creating a healthy and 
sane feeling of self-respect in the minds of the 
millions who are of low caste origin. This can be 
only safely and successfully done by the genuine 
conversion of the people to Christianity. Enough 
has been accomplished already to make this clear. 
The depressed and despised poor of yesterday are 
the intelligent leaders of awakening thousands 
to-day, and some of the Brahman leaders are 
clearly perceiving and confessing that the leaders 
of their community must either move forward or 
else fail in the race of progress. 
Problem of No ouc need feel surprised when told that some 
ciSSr* people in India who have seen more or less of the 
daily life of these depressed classes are inclined to 
doubt the possibility of elevating them either 



Problems 205 

morally or socially after they become Christians. 
The simple statement that many of them have re- 
ceived the appellation of carrion-eaters will suffice 
to destroy all hope of their social renovation in the 
minds of mnltitndes, even of intelligent people. 
But we are always prone to forget the social rock 
from which we ourselves have been hewn. Three 
centuries ago many of the ancestors of the most 
cultured of the Anglo-Saxon race were addicted 
to the practice of feasting upon puddings made of 
blood drawn from living cows. We forget, too, 
that three centuries ago there were sections of 
Great Britain in which the half savage farmers 
knew no better method of plowing than that of 
tying the tails of their oxen to the plows. The use 
of harness was unknown. The descendants of 
these rude and utterly ignorant people conven- 
iently forget many pages in the history of their 
ancestors which it would do them good to study. 

So far as the possibility of elevating these In- Problem of 
dian people of low caste is concerned, I venture to cia^ses^soived 
affirm that the problem has already been solved. 
I have seen before my own eyes a second genera- 
tion of Christians drawn from this class grow up 
to a new and nobler life than their ancestors ever 
knew. More than that, I have seen them overcome 
the prejudices of their high caste neighbors to an 
astonishing extent, and not only win, but com- 
mand their respect without effort. In regions 
where two or three generations ago it would have 



206 The Christian Conquest of India 

been considered an outrage for a man belonging 
to any of these depressed classes to presume to 
learn to read or to seek an education in any form 
whatever, I have seen the Christian convert not 
only acquiring knowledge but imparting it with- 
out exciting either indignation or surprise. Two 
years ago, when visiting a high school in northern 
India, my attention was called to a young man 
who was pronounced the most successful teacher 
in the institution. The principal of the school 
said to me that he passed more boys at the annual 
examination than any other teacher, and when 
I was in his room I noticed that not only 
Brahmans and other high caste Hindus were 
present, but also Mohammedans of the better class. 
This successful teacher was the son of a sweeper 
and his low origin was perfectly well known, and 
yet I saw him in the very act of preparing 
Brahman boys for admission to the university. 
This one illustration would suffice to show what 
is possible in the way of revolutionizing the posi- 
tion of these lowly people, but it is only one among 
many. 
Polygamy Polygamy is another great obstacle to mission- 
ary progress in India, and one of the immediate 
problems which must be confronted is that of 
deciding how to settle the affairs of a polygamous 
household when the head of the family becomes a 
Christian. To a reader in a Christian land the 
question may seem simple enough, but to those 




Brahman Sweeper 

Extremes of the Caste System 




Garo Polygamous Family, Assam 



Problems 207 

responsible for the settlement the question seems 
anything but simple. 

In Africa a definite policy has been adopted, but Polygamy 
African polygamy is very different from that of ^"^^"<=^ 
India. In Africa the husband buys his wife as he 
would purchase a horse or cow, and although she 
bears the relation of a wife to a husband, he can 
sever that relation without notice within the space 
of five minutes whenever he chooses. The wife is 
his slave, and of course the children are his prop- 
erty also. The husband can sell both wife and 
children and replace the discarded wife by pur- 
chasing another, all in the space of twenty-four 
hours. But the important part is that the dis- 
carded wife has been sold to another, or else is free 
to marry whom she pleases, and her children go 
with her. Of course a missionary who faces a con- 
dition of this kind not only can, but in every case 
must, insist on a Christian marriage, which, be- 
sides ennobling and sanctifying the union of the 
two, also protects the wife from legal sale, and 
secures rights and privileges to the children. 

In India there is no such condition as this. Polygamy 
Each wife has been legally married to the common 
husband, and the children are recognized as 
belonging to a common father and enjoying such 
rights as the religious and civil laws will enable 
them to claim. It is very true that many worth- 
less husbands treat their wives witli great cruelty 
and injustice, but the legal position of the woman 



in India 



of Polygamy 



208 The Christian Conquest of India 

will be respected in a court of law, if proper appli- 
cation is made. It thus appears that the question 
of polygamy in India is somewhat complicated; 
and the difficulty is increased by the fact that dif- 
ferent usages, and to some extent different laws, 
apply to members of different castes or different 
religions; and perhaps no question which arises 
in the whole mission field would perplex a new 
missionary more seriously than a legal issue con- 
nected with an attempt to readjust the affairs of 
a polygamous household. 
Illustration Very fcw missionaries have dealt successfully 

with the question as yet. A single case may be 
mentioned as an illustration. A Hindu with three 
wives applied to a missionary for baptism, together 
with ten of his neighbors who were monogamists. 
The missionary called attention to the Christian 
law of monogamy and was told immediately that 
the polygamist would separate from his plural 
wives, but when the time for action came it was 
found that he had no thought of a separation 
which would be equivalent to the Christian idea 
of divorce. He would not allow his wives to 
remarry, nor would he allow them to leave the 
village in which he himself resided. He had no 
thought of surrendering his authority over them, 
and it was evident that when they were separated 
from him his jealousy would keep both himself 
and his wives in constant trouljle. The end of the 
affair was that the man was not baptized and that 



Problems 



209 



m 
Unsolved 



his ten neighbors drew back also. The missionary, 
after long experience and wide observation, has 
publicly expressed his conviction that in ninety- 
nine cases out of a hundred attempts to break up 
a polygamous household in India will result very 
much as in the above instance. In other words, a 
very general conviction is felt, by men of experi- 
ence, that polygamous households cannot be sepa- 
rated permanently and successfully. 

It seems as if the only practical question to be Probie 
considered by the missionaries of the present gen 
eration, at least, is that of deciding whether a 
polygamous family can be admitted on any possi- 
ble conditions to the Christian Church. Of the 
wives it may be said that they have no choice. 
Practically nine tenths of them could not leave 
their husbands even if they so desired. The hus- 
band, on the other hand, would honestly feel, how- 
ever it might seem to us, that he could not break 
up his family. 

How long shall persons be kept on trial before Probation 
being admitted into the Church? If there is a 
need of testing the sincerity of prospective mem- 
bers in the homeland before they are accepted by 
the Church, how much greater the necessity of 
proving those who are ignorant of the Christian 
requirements and who are saturated with heathen 
practices. A man may be swayed by the gospel at 
a festival far from home and become an honest 
inquirer. If baptism is deferred he may never 



210 The Christian Conquest of India 



Private 



have an opportunit}' of receiving the rite at all. 
Some missionaries hold that it is right to stimu- 
late this desire by baptism and trust the divine 
power to produce fruitage, while others look upon 
this haste as destructive to the best interests of 
Christianity. 

In a country where people are so prejudiced 
ap ism ^Q^^j,^ other faiths, as they are in India, a bap- 
tismal confession usually precipitates great hard- 
ship. To renounce one's faith means the breaking 
of family ties and causes cruel persecution. Being 
reviled is mild compared with the danger of being 
drugged into idiocy or poisoned. The relatives, 
especially the mother, are relentless in their tor- 
ment. Under these circumstances is it strange 
that there are requests for private baptism, espe- 
cially from young women and students ? There are 
some who advocate secret baptism, believing that 
he who looketh upon the heart will deal generously 
with such, but others hold rigidly to the necessity 
of public confession. 

One of the most difficult problems that arises 
is that of the "mass movements" in various sec- 
tions of India. The designation of "rice Chris- 
tians" is familiar to all readers of missionary liter- 
ature. In the past, certain castes or classes have 
almost in a body sought entrance to the Church, 
and at the present time there are similar move- 
ments. The question arises whether these people 
are sincere, or whether they have come for the 



Embarrass 
ments of 
Success 



Problems 211 

*%aYes and fishes/' Famine, poverty, sickness, 
misfortune, litigation, lack of employment, desire 
for better marriage alliances, and the depressing 
caste rules are among the causes that influence 
the people. Can the missionaries discern the hearts 
of the applicants ? Another danger, although the 
people may be sincere in their purpose, is the 
possibility of dragging into the Church caste and 
other heathen customs, because of their ignorance 
of the meaning of Christianity. There are some 
who favor receiving large bodies because it pro- 
tects them from persecution, but others refuse to 
accept them before they are properly instructed in 
the new faith. Both conditions are a challenge to 
the home Church speedily to increase its forces in 
order that all who desire may be instructed in the 
principles of Christianity. 

Eliminating all unworthy converts does not end ^^^'^ °^ 
the missionary's difficulties when working among 
the poor. Christian baptism deprives many of em- 
ployment and home. If a man is in business he 
will be boycotted by Hindus and Mohammedans. 
In many cases it is not mere prejudice, but laws 
of caste would be violated by trading with a Chris- 
tian. The awful poverty and exclusion of the con- 
verts makes it impossible for them to help them- 
selves, hence it becomes the duty of the missiona- 
ries to provide in some way for such converts. It 
is a frightful thing when Christian converts are 
stranded with no means of livelihood. As a solu- 



212 The Christian Conquest of India 



Self-support 
of Pastors 



Self-support 
Possible 



tion of this grim problem, it is hoped that the 
organization of Christian communities or settle- 
ments, industrial education, and the growth of 
manufacturing will bring relief. 

So far as India is concerned, the mass of the 
converts are miserably poor. The average monthly- 
income of nineteen twentieths of the Christians in 
India probably does not exceed two dollars and 
a half. The people are so wretchedly poor that it 
seems cruel to look to them for any support of 
their pastors. But it is practically the life prin- 
ciple in Christianity that every individual believer 
should bear a part of the responsibility of support- 
ing the Master^s work. The very poorest can do 
something, as is evidenced by the number of 
churches that are self-supporting among the 
American Baptists. The converts in India are a 
very feeble people, but in the early future they will 
be a very numerous people. We can never expect 
them to give an average of a cent a day, but they 
can do a little. They could probably give a cent 
a month, and at this rate three hundred native 
Christians could support their own pastor. 

It will thus be seen that if converts in a country 
like India are initiated into the proper plan at the 
outset, and if their own pastors live among them, 
and are not raised too high above the average 
. people to whom they minister, the institutions of 
a living Christian Church can be permanently 
planted on Indian soil and extended throughout 



Problems 213 

the empire. Of course many difficulties will attend 
the work at the outset, but as time passes a law of 
Christian life which is too generally overlooked 
will begin to assert itself. As certainly as flowers 
bloom and trees and plants grow in the warm sun 
of early spring, so certainly will Christian institu- 
tions and Christian people begin to develop in nor- 
mal measure in India, or in any land where the 
gospel has free course and Christ is glorified. In 
the realm of spiritual dynamics much has been 
affirmed and much illustrated by events, but the 
Christian world has yet very much to learn con- 
cerning the power which is inherent in a body of 
humble believers who obey their Saviour, and are 
animated by the indwelling Spirit of God. 

The problem of church organization must also seif- 
be noticed. No matter what the polity favored by Go^"-"'"^"^ 
the missionaries may be, how can converts whose 
ancestors for three thousand years or more have 
been illiterate and ignorant of the meaning of 
organization assume the responsibility of con- 
structing the framework of a church organization ? 
What safeguards can be devised for securing the 
safety and integrity of the Indian Church of the 
future? Is it wise to encourage present-day con- 
verts to discuss or even think of future independ- 
ence, or any measure of autonomy? Should not 
the analogy of the present administration of civil 
affairs by a foreign power be followed by those 



214 The Christian Conquest of India 



Organization 
Law of Life 



Counter 
Movements 



entrusted with the responsibility of the future 
Church of India ? 

In reply to these and other questions connected 
with the organization of the Church, or of separate 
churches, it first of all may be well to state that 
organization is a law of life, and this holds true 
in the spiritual realm as well as in the natural 
world. A living Church will in every case develop 
lines of organization. The men of to-day are 
learning lessons which will be inherited by chil- 
dren and grandchildren, but the ultimate result 
will undoubtedly be that the Christian churches 
of India will administer their own. ecclesiastical 
affairs. It can hardly be otherwise, and it cer- 
tainly is not desirable that it should be otherwise. 
So far as the converts of the present generation 
are concerned, they have seldom, if indeed ever, 
manifested a disposition to abuse their privileges. 
There are many foreign missionaries in the land 
who have committed their rights, and even their 
ministerial character unreservedly into the hands 
of their India brethren, and in no instance has 
fraternal love and- confidence been abused. 

The Arya Samaj, one of the reforming bodies of 
Hinduism, has accepted the burden of purging its 
religion from superstition and leading its people 
back to one God. It is also bent upon extermi- 
nating Christianity. Mohammedanism is engaged 
in an organized propaganda to hinder missions by 
sending preachers to attack Christianity and wirt 



Problems 215 

back any who have renounced its faith. Hinduism 
has ceased being simply defensive and is now 
viciously assaulting the belief in the resurrection 
of Christ and other fundamental teachings. The 
deplorable efforts of individuals from the West, 
like Mrs. Besant, Madame Blavatsky, and Miss 
I^oble, are having an unwholesome influence on 
the minds of the people. Through their exertions 
in some of our Western cities the "yellow-robed 
Hindu monk^^ is parading Christianized-Hin- 
duism before "select" audiences. Following the 
example of the missionaries both Mohammedanism 
and Hinduism are employing the agencies of 
preachings the press, and education among their 
people. Modern Hinduism has even resorted to 
holding a weekly devotional meeting and has 
organized a Young Men^s Hindu Association in 
imitation of the Young Men^s Christian Associa- 
tion. In addition they are also discovering in 
their literature teachings that are similar to those 
of Christianity, and by this method are seeking to 
satisfy many hungry hearts. While these move- 
ments are not widespread, they are fraught with 
danger, because they are either led or espoused by 
able natives who have a potent influence over the 
people. 

Missionary leaders in India and missionary sec- Missionary 
retaries are not perfectly agreed in the views which ^^^^'^^ 
they take of the present situation or of the imme- 
diate duty of the Churches of the homeland. Some 



21G The Christian Conquest of India 

favor a polic}^ of expansion, while others would 
concentrate their efforts upon chosen portions of 
the vast field before them. Some would seek out 
the influential classes, while others would go 
directly to the masses. Some would advise 
thorough work even though the fruit might be 
limited, while others would cast the gospel net into 
the great sea of humanit}^ although assured that 
it would bring to them a great mass of human 
beings of "every kind." Who are right ? What is 
the best policy and the best method ? Should the 
missionaries and the Churches which sustain 
them, take broad views and expect great results, or 
should they move cautiously and avoid the snare 
of a zeal which is mixed with unconscious ambi- 
tion to lead great movements and achieve great 
victories ? 

Financial Somc thoughtful fricuds of missious regard the 
present financial basis of the enterprise as unsat- 
isfactory, and predict early embarrassment and 
ultimate failure unless a radical change is effected. 
In recent years missionaries have often been 
quoted as saying that their success has become 
their greatest embarrassment. Converts multiply 
more rapidly than the missionary income increases, 
and hence the work must soon either stop or be 
carried on under conditions which will lead to 
results perhaps worse than positive failure. In 
other words, the financial problem is regarded as 
the most serious of all pending questions. It 



Problem 



Problem; 



2ir 



seems, in fact, to illustrate the Sa.Tiour's parable 
of the man who attempted to bnild a tower with- 
out at first having made a correct estimate of the 
probable cost. 

It may be true, and indeed it does seem to be so, 
that the Churches have not as yet counted the cost 
of the great missionary tower which they are try- 
ing to bnild, but it is not too late yet for them to 
correct their mistake. The cost will be very great 
indeed, bnt never so great as to compare for a 
moment with the expense involved in a great war 
of conquest by the children of this world. When 
the object to be attained and the difficulties of 
the work are considered, the missionary enterprise 
is a marvel of simplicity and cheapness, but this 
does not change the fact that success upon even 
a moderate scale must soon involve an expenditure 
to be reckoned in terms of eight figures instead of 
seven. If a full solution of this problem cannot 
be produced at once, a good deal of light can cer- 
tainly be thrown upon it by taking two striking 
facts into consideration. 

In the first place, the Churches have not yet 
learned even so much as the alphabet of propor- 
tionate giving, nor have they mastered a single les- 
son in the art of systematic collecting. The tradi- 
tional plan of issuing appeals and trusting to the 
spontaneous inclination of the givers, is still the 
favorite plan of most missionary societies. A very 
little investigation never fails to show that mil- 



Countthe C 



Alphabet of 

Proportionate 

Giving 



318 The Christian Conquest of India 

lions never give anything at all, while millions 
more give small sums in a perfunctory way. The 
actual resources of the evangelical Churches of 
North America are so very great, that when placed 
in comparison with the actual revenues of the 
several missionary societies, they seem almost 
fabulous. 
Possibilities According to the latest statistics there are 

of Giving 

twenty-two million Protestant church members 
in the United States and Canada. These millions 
are all avowedly disciples of Jesus Christ, and as 
such are taught to pray daily for the coming of 
his kingdom in this world. If each and all of 
these millions were to give the sum of one 'cent' 
daily for the spiritual conquest of the non-Chris- 
tian world, the result would be an annual mission- 
ary revenue of over $80,000,000. An annual 
revenue of such a sum would not only meet all 
the demands of all the mission fields of the world, 
but would enable the missionary leaders at home 
and abroad to extend their fields and increase their 
agencies tenfold. The real problem pertains, 
then, not to the mission fields, but to the home 
Churches. The Churches of America are abun- 
dantly able not only to meet all the wants of our 
foreign missions for the immediate future, but 
to provide for an extension of the work far beyond 
the dreams of anyone in the mission field. Indeed, 
the above estimate hardly touches the question of 
the real ability and the resources of the Christians 



Problems 219 

of America. If their hearts were really enlisted 
in this work, if they really understood that they 
were obeying a summons from Christ himself, if 
they were fully awake to the perception of their 
immediate dnty as individnals, and if all began 
to give according to their actual ability, the $80,- 
000,000 would be doubled, trebled, and even quad- 
rupled without an effort. The real need is a revi- 
val of missionary interest. A missionary gospel 
must be preached, and those who bear the Chris- 
tian name, both old and young, be made aware that 
they are neglecting a responsibility which in the 
most solemn sense has been laid upon them by the 
Master himself. 

QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER VII 

Aim: To Realize the Difficulties that Must be 
OvEBCOiME IX the Chbistiax Coxquest of Ixdia 

1. . .Difficulties Compared icitli Other Countries.. 

1. Compare the difficulties in missionary work with 

those in Africa. 

2. How do the difficulties compare with those in 

Japan? In the homeland? 
3.* In which country would you prefer to ■u'ork for 
Christ? 

11. . .ProNem of Caste. 

4. What do you consider the greatest difficulty in 

Indian mission work? 
5.* How would you show an Indian that the caste 

system is injuring him? 



220 The Christian Conquest of India 

6. Do you think that the idea of brotherhood would 

appeal to an Indian? Why? 
7.* Which are the most efficient missionary 

agencies for elevating the depressed classes? 

Why? 

III. . .Problem of Polygamy. 

8. Why is polygamy wrong? 

9.* What effect has it on home life? 

10. How would you show a polygamist the evils 
of the system? 

11.* Is there any possibility of receiving polyga- 
mous persons into Church membership? Why 
not? 

IV. . .Church Relationship. 

12. What requirements would you make of an In- 

dian before baptizing him? 

13. Why would you not baptize an Indian privately? 
14.* Do you believe that the Indian Church can 

support its native ministry? Why? 

15. What degree of self-government would you 
allow the Indian Church? 

Y ... Christian Stewardship. 

16. What is the Old Testament basis for tithing? 
17.* Do you believe that the poor as well as the 

wealthy should give a tenth? Why? 

18.* Should missionaries be expected to make 
greater sacrifices than we in the homeland? 

19. Do you believe that the home Church is able 
to support sufficient reinforcements to evan- 
gelize the non-Christian world? Why? 

20.* How can you assist in overcoming these diffi- 
culties in the Christian Conquest of India? 



Problems 221 

Refebences for Advanced Study. — Chaptee VII 

I . . . Caste. 

Carmichael: Things As They Are, 81-97. 

Curtis: Modern India, XXIV. 

Denning: Mosaics from India, XV, XVI. 

Hunter: Brief History of the Indian Peoples, 96-98. 

Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 270-274. 

II . . , Self -Support. 

Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 229-233. 
Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, 274- 

277, 282-286. 
Stewart: Life and Work in India, 328-331. 
Stover: India a Problem, 184, 191, 199, 250. 

111. . .CTiristian Stewardship. 
Bosworth: "The New Testament Conception of the 

Disciple and his Money." 
Schauffler: "Money: Its Nature and Power." 
Strong: "Money and the Kingdom." 
For other pamphlets on Christian stewardship 

write to the secretary of your denominational 

missionary board. 



RESULTS 



CHAPTEE VIII 
RESULTS 

The final test of the value of modern missions The Test 
is that of results. Are they successful ? Do mis- 
sionaries accomplish the task which they have 
undertaken? In the face of mighty opposing 
forces missions have won amazing triumphs. 
Property has been acquired, languages mastered, 
translations made, literature published and circu- 
lated, converts added, intelligence advanced, lives 
transformed, native workers enlisted, women 
emancipated, reforms inaugurated, heathenism 
stirred to its very foundations, and a considerable 
constituency leavened with the spirit of Chris- 
tianity. 

After a century of work the Church can boast Property 
of possessing thousands of acres of land and a 
large number of substantial buildings that have 
been erected to the cause of Christ. These repre- 
sent an investment of ten million dollars contribu- 
ted by Christians of the West, and by the natives. 
There are churches and chapels, colleges, schools, 
and dormitories, hospitals and printing houses, 
residences for missionaries and native helpers. 
Christian Association and other buildings. These 
structures are a gigantic asset in the missionary 
enterprise of the empire. 

225 



226 The Christian Conquest of India 

Literature In a land where prejudices are so strong one of 
the most effective messengers is the printed page. 
Over forty presses are producing more than four 
million copies of leaflets, books, and periodicals 
for evangelistic and educational work annu- 
ally. The Bible has been translated into nearly 
seventy of the most important languages and dia- 
lects. Besides this there is an abundance of uplift- 
ing Christian literature available to the people, 
that will continue to do its leavening work quietly, 
regardless of the change of workers and mission- 
ary policy. 
Progress of Only a part of the good work done can be tabu- 
lated in statistical columns, and these never can tell 
a complete story. During the first half of the last 
century, before the era of railways and cheap post 
routes, the missionaries of India were isolated 
from one another, and it was not until the year 
1851 that the first attempts were made to collect 
the statistics of all the Protestant missions in the 
empire. At the close of 1851 the total number of 
Christians in India under the care of Protestant 
missionaries was 91,092, but of these only 14,661 
were communicants. The number of foreign mis- 
sionaries reported was 339, and the number of 
native pastors was only twenty-one. At the present 
day these figures seem disappointing, but it should 
be remembered that a large proportion of these 
missionaries were young men, not yet familiar 
with Indian languages, and it should also be 



First Half 
Century 



and after a 
Century 



Eesults 227 

explained that for many years niosT missionaries 
were nn wisely too cantioiis in admitting natives to 
the ranks of authorized preachers. 

During the second half of the last century Agencies at 
steady progress was made, and at the meeting of 
the Decennial Missionary Conference in Madras^ 
at the close of 1902, the following statistics^ were 
reported : 

Ordained Protesranr Male Missionaries 1.049 

Ordained Xatiye Preachers 905 

Unordained Native Preachers 6.653 

Native Teachers 9,050 

College and Upper School Students. . . . 52.597 
Lower School Pupils 162.645 

These figures were snfficiently encouraging, but Women-s 
less so than those showing the rise and extraordi- ^s^°^^^^ 
nary progress of missionary work among women. 
This was practically a new work, and the preju- 
dices of the people, not to mention the misgivings 
of some missionaries, should be taken into account 
when regarding the extraordinary progress made 
as indicated in these statistics : 

Foreign and Eurasian Agents 1.302 

Native Agents 5,965 

Medical Agents, Foreign and Eurasian.. 193 
Native Medical Agents 157 

^Latest statistics in Appendix E. 



228 The Christian Conquest of India 

Agents, Com- The total number of Christian agents of all 
^d^Adherents kiuds was reported as 25,799, while the total num- 
ber of communicants was 343,906, and the total 
number of native Protestant Christians of all ages 
lacked only 21,06-1 of being a round million. Later 
reports from various parts of the empire indicate 
that the present Protestant Christian community 
numbers much more than a million souls and is 
steadily increasing. 
Comparison rpj^^ official ccusus of 1901 rcDorts a Christian 

with other . p n i i i 

Religions population of 2,923,241 ot all branches. This is 

an increase of 640,000 during the previous decade, 
a growth four times as rapid as that of the whole 
population. By comparing the data for the vari- 
ous religions of the empire, and including only the 
increase of the native Protestant Christians, the 
progress is still more satisfying. The figures for 
the ten years preceding 1901 are as follow:^ 

Protestant native Christians about 50.87 per cent. inc. 

Buddhists 32.88 " 

Non-Protestant native Christians.. 21.44 *' 

Silihs 15.07 " 

Mohammedans 8.96 " 

Jews 6.01 " 

Parsees 4.76 " " 

Hindus 28 " " dec. 

Jains 5.82 " 

Animists, etc 6.15 " 

Increase of total population 2.45 " " 

^Includes Roman Catholics. 

^Quoted by Beach, India and Christian Opportunity, 
251. 



Eesults 



239 



Numbers 



Change 

in Converts 



Living 

and Worship 



Moreover, in the census the adherents of nine christians 
different religions are tabulated, and among these pi""e^fn^'^*^ 
the Christians occupy the fifth place in number. 
And yet many writers and tou,rists persist in 
reporting to the outer world that missionary work 
in India has been a failure. 

No doubt the reader will wish to know about the 
details of the work. Someone, for instance, will 
wish to ask about the converts. In what way are 
they changed when they become Christians? Do 
they adopt European habits? Do they give up 
Oriental notions and prejudices? How do they 
conduct public worship? 

As a rule, converts make some change in their 
dress, food, and style of living. Like the disciples 
of Jesus, they have to be taught how to pray. In 
most cases they prefer to sing native tunes, and if 
left to themselves, they incline to adopt Oriental 
methods of worship. In village chapels there is 
often an absence of furniture, except a small stand 
and a single chair. The people sit on mats, often 
of very cheap material. A village chapel may not 
cost more than twent3^-five dollars, and its furni- 
ture two or three dollars more. But the children 
and most of the young people can read, and the 
service is intelligent and devout. Morally the 
people are not perfect, but relatively, if allowance 
is made for difference of advantages, they will 
compare favorably with an average Western con- 
gregation. 



230 The Christian Conquest of India 



Increased 
Intelligence 



Recognized 

Christian 

Community 



As a community the Indian Protestant Chris- 
tians have gained steadily in intelligence, so that 
now they supply more than twenty-one times their 
quota of the students and pupils in the schools, 
and command the respect of their non-Christian 
neighbors to an extent wholly unknown in past 
3'ears. This is especially noticeable in the case of 
converts from the lowest social classes, some of 
whom are now treated with much respect. It 
begins to be evident that in coming years the power 
of the caste system will be broken much sooner, 
and more effectively, than has generally been sup- 
posed. In many lines of service the best equipped 
men will win the best positions, and in India offi- 
cial position carries social respect with it. 

Among the striking results of missionary labor 
in India a conspicuous place should be assigned 
to the fact that there is now a recognized Christian 
community in the empire, and that, altogether 
apart from the government, it is a recognized 
power in the land. Fifty years ago Indian Chris- 
tians were almost unknown in all the region north 
of Calcutta and Bombay, while in southern India 
the term Christian was understood to apply chiefly 
to the communities raised up during the era of 
the early Portuguese and Dutch rulers. But 
to-day the term Christian, as applied to natives 
of India, has a very different meaning. It is a 
more definite and positive term. It partakes of 
the character of the Protestant missionary body 



Eesults 231 

of the empire. It carries with, it the idea of defi- 
nite belief and positive moral character. Chris- 
tians of this class are found far and near. They 
preach and worship in all the leading languages 
of the empire. They publish several weekly papers 
in English — papers owned and edited by Indian 
Christians — and issne many publications in the 
various vernaculars. One of their number has 
been a member of the Yiceroy^s Legislative Coun- 
cil, and another a member of the Legislative 
Council of Bengal. The names of Christian stu- 
dents appear in the lists of applicants for univer- 
sity degrees so constantly that their presence no 
longer occasions any remark. 

Pandita Eamabai's noble work for the uplifting prominent 
of her sisters is alreadv well known. A Brahman "w-omen 

"^ . Converts 

widow, she lost her father very early in life, and 
consecrated herself to the redemption of Hindu 
women. Her deeds of faith and philanthropy are 
expressed in more than two thousand unfortunate 
ones whom she is protecting, training, and giving 
a vision of Christ. The father of the illustrious 
Sorabji sisters was a converted Parsee; one of his 
daughters, the widow of an Englishman, has 
exceptional ability as a singer. One was a repre- 
sentative at the World's Parliament of Religions 
in Chicago. The third and most distinguished is 
Cornelia Sorabji, a brilliant barrister and writer 
in India. Her graduation thesis at Oxford, on 
Eoman Law, was one of the best papers ever pro- 



232 The Christian Conquest of India 

duced at that institution. Mrs. Sathianthan, a 
talented writer, established the first English 
monthly magazine for the women of India. 
After an address by Miss Singh at the Ecumeni- 
cal Missionary Conference in New York, in 1900, 
ex-President Harrison said that if he had con- 
tributed a million dollars to missions, and had 
seen only one such convert, he would consider it a 
profitable investment. These and a host of other 
women are achieving results for the kingdom 
among their sisters, and it is not extravagant to 
state that they are a mighty force for righteous- 
ness in the land. 
Notable "Beginning with those early confessors, Krishna 
Pal and Ko Thah-byu, one passes down through 
the century noticing the names of such high caste 
converts as Krishna Mohun Banerjea, D. L., distin- 
guished as a Hindu editor and, after his conversion, 
as a professor in Bishop^s College, as a clergyman 
of the Church of England, and above all as the 
native father of Bengali literature ; of Ram Chan- 
dra Bose, M. A., whose career as an educator would 
have placed him in the highest official position, 
had he not chosen to become an evangelist under 
the American Methodists, until the demands made 
upon him as a lecturer in India and at Chicago 
University, where he gained his M. A., brought 
him before a larger audience; of Professor Earn 
Chandra whose work on the problems of Maxima 
and Minima made his name famous in the univer- 



Native 
Leaders 



Kesults 233 

sities of Europe, as did later writings on Differen- 
tial and Integral Calculus, and who became head 
of the Department of Instruction in one of the 
native states; of Eev. Imad-ud-din, D. D., the 
most distinguished accession from Indian Moham- 
medanism, whose conversion is of thrilling inter- 
est, and whose twenty-four Christian books are a 
most valued addition to Indian literature; and of 
Eev. Narayan Sheshadri, a Brahman convert of 
Dr. John Wilson, who gained so enviable a reputa- 
tion during his visit in America, whence he car- 
ried home from McGill University of Montreal, 
the degree of D. D. I^or do these men belong only 
to the past. At King Edward's coronation in Lon- 
don, as emperor of India, twenty representatives 
of the native Indian Church were present, six of 
them being ruling princes."^ 

The record of service rendered by the Christian Foreign 
missionaries of India is one which will be better ^p*°**°° 
appreciated a century hence than it is at the 
present day. The first generation of missionaries 
was misunderstood and misrepresented, but no 
whisper against them or their successors is heard 
in official circles to-day. It is conceded by all 
parties that they have done a good and great work, 
while they themselves are animated by stronger 
faith and brighter hopes than ever before. Their 
influence has been felt in almost all parts of the 
globe. Native preachers have been asked for in 

^Beach. India and Christian Opportunity, 260, 261. 



234 The Christian Conquest of India 

places as far distant as the Fiji Islands and Natal, 
and converts have been reported from Demarara 
and East Africa. Able missionaries have gone 
from India into Persia and Arabia, and converts 
have been won in the sealed regions of Tibet and 
Nepal. When God by his providence opened the 
gates of the Philippine Islands, missionaries from 
India were among the first to enter, and much of 
the work now making notable progress in the 
islands of Malaysia had its origin in India. 
Indeed, as far back as the time of Dr. Carey, mis- 
sionaries were sent from Calcutta to the island 
of Java. In short, missionary work in India has 
not only been notably successful, but the key posi- 
tion of the empire among the Asiatic powers, 
makes the conversion of India the most important 
project now engrossing the attention of the Chris- 
tian world. 
Caste Tyranny Jn a prcvious chapter mention has been made 
of the persistent opposition of the higher castes 
to the education of the low caste and outcaste 
children. This opposition continues to a very 
great extent in some sections, but in other places 
the logic of events is overcoming it. While many 
oppose, the poor people quietly go ahead and allow 
their children to be educated, and when the boys 
and girls reach mature years they seem to drift 
naturally into the positions for which they are 
fitted. Their critics or opponents may not like it, 
but they cannot help it, and it is no wonder that 



Being Broken 



Results 235 

intelligent persons begin to see that the rule of 
caste tyranny is fast approaching its end. The 
practical meaning of all this is that in going to 
the lowly poor in the character of God's messen- 
gers, and pointing out to them a pathway of 
enlightenment and social elevation, the missiona- 
ries have struck a blow at the system of caste from 
which it never can recover. The future of the 
system is only a question of time. Many years 
may elapse before the end comes, but as a social 
force the traditional caste system of India cannot 
survive the education and enlightenment of the 
great mass of low caste and outcaste people who 
now grope in mental and spiritual darkness. 
India will yet be freed from this great barrier to 
her progress, and when the day of deliverance 
comes, it will be seen and acknowledged by all that 
it was the Christian missionaries above all others 
who introduced the agencies which effected this 
great reform. 

Aside from the religious question altogether, it Reforms 
is certain that in addition to the good work done ^^^ Results 
directly, the agencies introduced by the missiona- 
ries have also resulted in much good to the people. 
Millions are better off and enjoy greater privileges 
and opportunities than would have fallen to their 
lot had the missionaries never entered the empire. 
To confirm this statement, it is necessary to refer 
to only one change which has occurred since Dr. 
Carey landed in Calcutta ; I refer to the changed 



236 The Christian Conquest of India 

position of Indian womanhood. If Christian mis- 
sionaries had never come to India, the suttee fires 
might still be burning on the banks of the Ganges, 
the inmates of the zenanas would still be without 
medical relief, and the whole womanhood of the 
empire would have been absolutely illiterate. 
Infant marriage and enforced widowhood would 
have gone unchallenged, and thus one half of 
the population would have been condemned to 
a life of mental disabilities and social wrongs. 
Had Christian missionaries never come to India, 
millions of the people would have been wholly 
illiterate to-day, and any proposal to teach them 
would have been resented as a public wrong. 
Whole tribes that are now devout Christian 
believers would have been worshiping demons, or 
adoring snakes, monkeys, or cows. Before the 
advent of the Christian missionaries into the 
country, hospitals had been built for cows and 
elephants, for snakes and tigers, for insects and 
birds, but not for human beings. The change thus 
far effected among the people is by no means com- 
plete, but if not complete, it is not stationary. 
It is a progressive movement and one that gains 
both momentum and speed as time passes. Great 
changes for the better may be anticipated as the 
years go by and it is hoped that India will 
regain the position she once held, but unhappily 
forfeited, as the intellectual leader of the Asiatic 
nations. 



Results 237 

In estimating the value of Christian missions Europeans 
in India, we should not lose sight of the good work 
done, or good influences exerted by the missiona- 
ries among the Europeans in the empire. Dr. 
Carey and his colleagues found that the European 
society of Calcutta was almost incredibly and reck- 
lessly bad, and this accounts for the fierce hostility 
with which they were greeted. Sir John Kaye, 
well known as a writer on Indian subjects, says of 
European society in Calcutta at that period : 

"There was no society whose frowns the sensu- vice of 
alist might dread. His doings on those far-off Europeans 
shores were unknown to his countrymen in Eng- 
land. In India he was as far beyond the observa- 
tion of parent, brother, or friend, as though he 
dwelt on another planet. There were, in truth, no 
outward motives to preserve morality of conduct, 
or even decency of demeanor. So from the 
moment of landing, the first settlers cast off all 
those bonds which had restrained them in their 
native land. They regarded themselves as privi- 
leged beings — privileged to violate all the obliga- 
tions of religion and morality, and to outrage all 
the decencies of life. Many of those who went 
there were desperate adventurers whom England 
had, in the emphatic language of the Scriptures, 
^spued out' ; men who sought those golden sands to 
repair broken fortunes ; to bury in obscurity a sul- 
lied name, or to wring with lawless hands from 
the weak the wealth which they had not the honest 



Europeans 



238 The Christian Conquest of India 

capacity or character to obtain by honest means 
at home. They gambled, they drank, they reveled 
in all kinds of debauchery. Associated in vice, 
they often pursued one another with desperate 
malice. Among them there was no fellowship but 
that of vice.^^ 

It is not a pleasant duty to place this repulsive 
Changes jn picture ou exhibition, but it is due to the early 
missionaries of that period to place on record the 
fact that the hostility of the European community 
a century ago was a compliment to the missiona- 
ries. Dr. Carey in Calcutta was simply Bunyan's 
pilgrim in a modern Vanity Fair. But Dr. Carey 
was not to die at the hands of his enemies. To 
him and his associates it was given to inaugurate 
a movement for the conversion of India to Chris- 
tianity, and this included necessarily the reforma- 
tion of the base worldlings who defied God and 
disgraced the Christian name in Calcutta and 
Bengal. The task was difficult enough, and 
required many long and weary years, but so far as 
the European community is concerned, Calcutta 
became a changed city before the middle of the 
century, and will now compare ver}^ favorably with 
many Western cities. But Calcutta does not stand 
alone in this record. All over India the personal 
influence of the missionaries, and in some places 
their pulpit and pastoral influence, have greatly 
contributed to the maintenance of a correct stand- 
ard of morals and decent respect for the ordi- 



Eesults 239 

nances of the Christian religion. The task of the 
missionaries is not only to win the teeming mil- 
lions of India to the Christian faith, but to help in 
making India worthy of a place among the Chris- 
tian empires of the world. 

Among the healthy movements that have been Brahmo- 
aroused by Christianity are the various samajes or *"^*^ 
societies that are endeavoring to lead the people 
back to the earlier and pnrer days of their Aryan 
forefathers. Notable among these attempts has 
been the career of a small, but intelligent and 
devoted band of reformers in Calcutta popularly 
known as Brahmos. The founder of this move- 
ment, Eam Mohan, Eoy, was a man of character 
and ability, but at his death the late Keshub 
Chunder Sen became its great leader nearly fifty 
years ago, and in the year 1860 gave the name 
of Brahmo-SamaJ to the band of disciples who 
rallied about him. While repudiating much of 
Hinduism, these leaders tried to revive the teach- 
ings of the earliest Vedic writers. They also 
became avowed reformers, and by their public 
teachings and writings succeeded in making a 
marked impression upon intelligent Hindus, 
especially in Bengal; but thus far the leaders of 
the movement have not been able to draw around 
them any considerable number of like-minded per- 
sons. In other parts of the country they have 
attracted attention, and have apparently stimu- 
lated other parties to take up the work of reform. 



340 The Christian Conquest of India 

Arya-samaj In imitation of the Brahmos, Dyanand Saras- 
vati organized the Arya-Samaj in northern India, 
and soon gathered around him a large number of 
followers. They adopted a profession of reform, 
but are less liberal than the Brahmos, and, unlike 
them, vigorously oppose the Christian missiona- 
ries. They usually manifest a strong partisan 
bias, and in consequence many of the missionaries 
in northern India refuse to cooperate with them 
in reform movements. The Arya-Samaj leaders 
denounce popular idolatry, and many of them are 
enlisted in a crusade against child marriage, 
enforced widowhood, and other social abuses. 
Aside from all other considerations, it is a hopeful 
sign to see any class of the Hindu community 
encouraging popular reforms such as these, and 
whatever the immediate effect may be, no one can 
doubt that in the end this and other movements 
of the kind will prove helpful to the cause of 
Christian missions. 

Ko San Ye Amoug the remarkable innovations is that of 
the Baptist Karen Mission, known as the Ko San 
Ye Movement. It is an independent work manned 
by native Christians, and under the leadership of 
Ko San Ye. Previous to his conversion in 1880, 
he was a leader of considerable influence, and 
although not educated, he has demonstrated extra- 
ordinary initiative and organizing ability. The 
work is conducted at twelve centers, some magnifi- 
cent buildings have been erected, and it has 



Movement 



Eesults 241 

resulted in adding thousands of members to the 
Karen churches. A feature of the enterprise is 
institutional, and involves the feeding and lodging 
of the people who visit the centers. The expense 
of maintaining this work is largely provided by 
San Ye's followers, but a generous amount is con- 
tributed by heathen. As a result, Christianity is 
attracting the entire populace of lower Burma, 
and there is a need for great wisdom and tact on 
the part of the missionaries in dealing with this 
movement. 

By far the most marvelous movement is the The National 
ors^anization of the National Missionary Society Missionary 

. , , . . Society 

of India, which marks a distinct epoch in the his- 
tory of missions. Its coming has not been unher- 
alded, because as early as 1860 there was an 
attempt to organize a N"ational Society that should 
be independent of foreign management and sup- 
port. Local movements similar to the Ko San Ye 
movement have been in existence in several parts 
of India, but this great society is national and 
interdenominational, with its purpose the evan- 
gelization of the empire. Delegates representing 
each province of India and Ceylon met in Carey^s 
historic library at Serampur, on Christmas Day, 
1905. In the old pagoda, where Henry Martyn 
prayed and worked for the evangelization of 
India, the Constitution of the new society was 
adopted. The organization is loyal to all denomi- 
nations, solicits no contributions outside of the 



242 The Christian Conquest of India 

empire, and lays the task of India's evangelization 
upon her sons. The movement is governed by a 
council of sixty representative Indian Christians, 
and by an executive committee assisted by an 
advisory board of experienced missionaries. 
Already the organization has stimulated some of 
the Christian students to offer themselves as pas- 
tors, and Indian Christians are consecrating their 
son's and contributing funds for the evangelization 
of their ovrn people. This indigenous missionary 
organization under the leadership of Sir Hanam 
Sing as president, and Mr. Y. S. Azariah, promises 
mighty things for the cause of Christ in the 
empire. 
Glorious India may not be the most important section of 

the globe, but it presents the field most ripe for the 
sickle of the missionary reaper. As its rich har- 
vests are garnered, the joyous harvest songs of the 
reaper will be heard around the globe, and the 
reapers in a thousand whitening fields in other 
lands will take up the strain, and even heaven 
itself join in the most sublime chorus of praise 
which has been heard since the morning stars 
sang together at the dawn of creation. The 
mighty work of saving a vast empire will not be 
completed in a day, or a month, or a year, or a 
decade, but it need not and must not be allowed 
to drag along through a long course of weary cen- 
turies. All great movements gain momentum if 
allowed a free course. If history seems to contra- 



Opportunitv 



Workers 



Results 243 

diet this statement, it is because it so often hap- 
pens that due care is not taken to keep the course 
free and clear. It is no exaggeration to say that 
no men and women on earth carry a more weighty 
responsibility and yet enjoy a richer and more glo- 
rious opportunity than the chosen few who hold 
the lines of advance in the great mission field of 
India. 

It would be difficult to find any class, caste. Need of 
tribe, or people which has not one or more repre- 
sentatives among the Christian converts of this 
land of promise. The call for laborers which 
India sends to the Christians of Europe and 
America is one which embraces all kinds of 
workers for a field which needs every kind of 
labor. Teachers are needed for pupils of every 
grade from the kindergarten to the university. 
The vernacular preacher of the first generation is 
giving place to a successor with a literary degree. 
Very recently twenty-two students in an Indian 
college volunteered in a body for the work of 
preachers in their native land. The daughters of 
converts who in former days lived in squalid pov- 
erty are studying in college halls and winning 
honors which will give them distinction through- 
out the empire. In short, a new and bright day 
has dawned upon India and God is co-operating 
with his servants in creating agencies which will 
prove sources of blessing far and wide through the 
empire for years and generations to come. 



244 The Christian Conquest of India 
Millions jj^ ]jQj. most palmy days Rome ruled over only 

Waiting ^ >j j j 

one hundred and twenty million people, while in 
India to-day nearly three hundred million souls 
are subject, more or less directly, to the rule of 
the King-Emperor. China alone among the great 
kingdoms and empires of the world can compare 
with India in population at the beginning of this 
new century, and this splendid realm has opened 
all her gates and doors to the Christian missionary. 
Instead of the wretched little vessels in which 
Paul coasted around the Mediterranean ports, the 
Indian missionary has floating palaces to convey 
him at sea, while palatial cars await him when he 
wishes to travel by land. God has opened his path- 
way to even the most remote tribes, while a sym- 
pathetic and enlightened government protects him 
from hostile persecution, or even the menace of 
danger. The original commission to evangelize 
the nations still stands, while God, who rules over 
all nations, sets an open door before his servants 
who are willing to enter and evangelize the wait- 
ing millions. 
Time The time is auspicious, and the missionaries of 

Auspicious jjj^j^g^ should not lose a day or an hour in sounding 
the trumpet for a great forward movement. As 
Paul, the ideal missionary for all lands and all 
time, aimed first for Greece and next for Rome, so 
should the missionaries of our modem day aim foi 
all the great centers of population, commerce, and 
political rule in the empire. This does not mean 



Eesults 245 

that outlying and distant places are to be neg- 
lected, but only that the great centers of power and 
influence should be quickly seized and strongly 
held. A wide and firm grasp is needed. The 
word should be passed all along the line that India 
is to be won for Christ, and that the greatest 
movement ever attempted in the history of Chris- 
tianity is now at hand. Nothing in all modern 
history, nothing since the day of Pentecost^ has 
been equal to the present opportunity. 

The old may rejoice that they have lived to see christiaa 
this day, but the young may rejoice still more in ^°°*i'^'*^*^ 
the hope of seeing a day when a million souls will 
be found inquiring the way to Zion in North 
India, a million in West India, a million more in 
Burma, and still a million more in South India. 
A million ? Why not ten millions ? Why not the 
Christian Conquest of India? 



QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER VIII 

Aim : To Realize the Obligation of the Chubch for 
THE Christian Conquest of India in View 
OF Past Achievements and Present 
Opportunities 

I. . .Results Achieved. 

1. In what respect is the possession of property an 

important asset in the missionary enterprise? 

2. In what way does Christian literature supple- 

ment other missionary agencies? 



24:6 The Christian Conquest of India 

3.* Compared with the first half century, how do 
you explain the more rapid progress of the 
last half? 

4. Do you consider ordained missionaries more 

effective agents than lay missionaries? 

5. How do you account for the rapid advance of 

work among women in India? 

6. What proportion of the population is now Chris- 

tian? 
7.* Enumerate some of the conditions necessary 

for a doubling of Christian communicants in 

India during the next decade. 
8. What religion has the better opportunity for the 

conquest of India, Christianity, or Moham- 
medanism? 
9.* Do you think that the neutral rule of the 

British government is an aid to missionary 

work? Why? 

10. In what way is the work of Christianity 
strengthened by strong Indian leaders? 

11. To what extent will the improved social life 
and increased intelligence among the Indian 
Christians affect the non-Christian people? 

12.* How will foreign missionary work done by 
Indian Christians stimulate the Christian 
Church in India? 

II. . .Present Opportunities. 
13.* What advantages of freedom for missionary 

work has India as compared with China? 
14.* To what extent do you think the organization 

and cooperation of Indian Christians will 

hasten the extension of Christianity? 
15. How much do you think the reforming bodies 

in the native religions will assist Christianity 

among the people? 



Eesults 247 

16. What particular help will the cooperation of 
Christian Europeans in official and business 
positions, be to the cause of missions? 

17.* Do you consider India more ripe for imme- 
diate conquest than any other of the great 
non-Christian countries? Why? 

18.* Where do you think the greatest obstacles are 
to the Evangelization of India? Why? 

19.* How can we in the homeland hasten the Chris- 
tian conquest of India? 



Refebexces foe Advanced Study. — Chapter VIII 
. . Testimonies Concerning the Work of Missioiis. 

Beach: India and Christian Opportunity, 269-276. 

Curtis: Modern India, XXVIII. 

Liggins: The Great Value and Success of Foreign 
Missions, 94-111. 

Stock: A Short Handbook of Missions, 112-115. 

Students and the Modern Missionary Crusade, Re- 
port of the Nashville Convention, 1906, 131-141. 



11. . .Success of Missions. 

Clough: Tales of a Telugu Pariah Tribe, 285-301. 
Cochrane: Among the Burmans, XIII. 
Griffin: India, and Daily Life in Bengal, XIV. 
Jones: India's Problem: Krishna or Christ, XI. 
Pierson: The Miracles of Missions, First Series 

III, VIII. 
Pierson: The Miracles of Missions, Fourth Series, 

IV. 
Stover: India a Problem (Telugu), XIII. 
Young: The Success of Christian Missions, IV. 



/J-48 The Christian Conquest of India 

III. . .Native Christians. 

Dyer: Pandita Ramabai, VII, VIII, 

Mateer: The Gospel in South India, VIII, X, XI, 

XIV. 
Pierson: The Miracles of Missions, Third Series, 

XIII. 
Stock: Notes on India for Missionary Students, 

93-99. 



APPENDIXES 



Appendix A 



251 



APPENDIX A 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 



1500 B. C. to 900 B. C. 
900 B. C. to 1200 A. D. 
543 B. C. to 900 A. D. 
400 B. C. to 
508 B. C. 
327 B. C. 

250 B. C. 

161 B. C. 

100 B. C. to 500 A. D. 

500 A. D. 

640-1300 A. D. 
1001 A. D. 

1000-1765 A. D. 

1260 A. D. 
1321 A. D. 
1370 A. D. 

1398 A. D. 
1498 A. D. 

1500 A. D. 
1500-1600 A. D. 

1525-1857 A. D. 
1542 A. D. 



Period of Vedism. 
Period of Brahmanism. 
Period of Buddhism. 
Period of Modern Hinduism. 
Persian Invasion under Darius. 
Greek Invasion under Alexander 

the Great. 
Asoka establishes Buddhism as 

state reUgion, 
Bactrian Invasion. 
Sc3rthian or Tartar Invasions. 
Nestorian Missions in Central 

Asia. 
Islam Supreme in Western Asia. 
First Invasion of Punjab by 

Mahmud of Ghazni. 
Mohammedan Invasions and Rule 

of Islam. 
Franciscan Missions in Asia. 
The Four Martyrs of Thana. 
Tamerlane's conquest sweeps 

Christianity from Central Asia. 
Tamerlane invades India. 
Portuguese Expedition under Vas- 

co da Gama. 
First Portuguese Missionaries. 
Portuguese monopoly of Oriental 

trade. 
Mogul Empire. 
Francis Xavier. 



253 Appendix A 



1556 A. D. Akbar the Great. 

1560 A. D. Introduction of the Inquisition 

into Portuguese Missions at Goa. 

1600 A. D. Akbar, a Patron of Christianity. 

1600-1857 British East India Company main- 

tains mihtary and commercial 
power. 

1G02 A. D. Dutch East India Company found- 

ed. 

1602-1642 A. D. Dutch Protestant Missions estab- 

lished. 

1604 A. D. The French enter India. 

1606 A. D. Robert de Nobili, Jesuit Mission- 

ary in India. 

1658-1707 A. D. Aurungzeb. 

1681 A. D. First English Church founded. 

1698 A. D. East India Company's Charter 

enjoins the provision of chap- 
lains. 

1705 A. D. First Danish Lutheran Missionary, 

Ziegenbalg appointed. 

1705 A. D. King of Denmark sends first 

Protestant missionaries to India. 

1709 A. D. First English contribution to Mis- 

sions in India— £20— by S. P.G. 
members of Danish Mission. 

1739-1761 A. D. Afghan Invasion and Sack of Delhi 

1750 A. D. Schwartz, ''the Christian," arrives 

in India. 

1757 A. D. Lord Clive's victory at Plassey 

establishes British Empire in 
India. 

1758 A. D. Kiernander goes to Calcutta in 

1771, builds " Old Church.' 
1792 A. D. Formation of Baptist Missionary 

Society in England. 



Appendix A 253 

1793 A. D. William Carey sails for Calcutta. 

1793 A. D. East India Company's Charter 

renewed with Wilberforce's 

pious clauses defeated. 
1793-1813 A. D. Active opposition of East India 

Company to the spread of the 

gospel. 
1800 A. D. First Hindu Convert baptised by 

Carey. 
1806 A. D. Henry Martyn arrives in India. 

1811 A. D. Baptism of Abdul Masih. 

1812 A. D. First American Missionaries. Bur- 

ma and Bombay. 

1813 A. D. East India Charter renewed with 

Wilberforce's pious clauses in- 
serted. 
1825 A. D. Bishop Heber ordains Abdul 

Masih, H. Martyn's convert 
from Islam, first native clergy- 
man in India. S. P. G. takes 
over S. P. C. K. Missions in 
southern India. 

1829 A. D. Abolition of suttee by Lord W, 

W. Bentinck. First Scotch Mis- 
sionaries to India, Alexander 
Duff and John Wilson. 

1830 A. D. John Devasagayam, first native 

clergyman in southern India, or- 
dained. 

1833 A. D. British Government declares itself 

neutral regarding introduction 
of Christianity. 

1834 A. D, Basel Mission in Malabar. 

1837 A. D. Sir P. Maitland resigns command 

of the Madras Army rather than 
salute the idols. 



254 Appendix A 

1846 A. D. Gossner's Mission, Chota Nagpure. 

1850 A. D. First Medical Mission. 

1853 A. D. First Railway train in India, 

April 16. 

1854 A. D. Sir C. Wood's dispatch on Educa- 

tion in India. 

1857 A. D. Sepoy Mutiny, and Dissolution of 

East India Company. 

1858 A. D. Government of India transferred 

to the Crown. 

1859 A. D. First Call for Week of Prayer. 
1864-1869 A. D. John Lawrence Viceroy of India. 
1866 A. D. Keshub Chunder Sen's Lecture on 

Christ, May 5. Imad-ud-din 
baptized April 29, 1868. or- 
dained Dec. 6. 

1870-1880 A. D. Great ingathering of Telugus. 

1872 A. D. First General Missionary Confer- 

ence, Allahabad. 

1877 A. D. Queen Victoria proclaimed Em- 

press of India. Cambridge Delhi 
Mission begun. 

1880 A. D. Oxford Mission to Calcutta. 

1886 A. D. The Student Volunteer Movement 

at Northfield, Mass. 

1896 A. D. Formation of Student Volunteer 

Movement of India and Ceylon. 

1905 A. D. Organization of the National Mis- 

sionary Society of India. 



APPENDIX B 

Bibliography 



HISTORICAL 
Andrew, W. P., India and Her Neighbors. Allen & 

Co., London, 15s. 
Cox, Sir G. W., History of ttie Establishment of 

British Rule in India. Longmans, Green & Co., 

New York, 60c., net. 
Cunningham, H. S., British India and Its Rulers. 

Allen & Co., London, 2s. 
Dutt, R. C, Ancient India. Longmans, Green & Co., 

New York. $1. 
Eden, C. H., India, Historical and Descriptive. Ward, 

London, 3s. 6d. 
Encyclcpsedia Britannica, Vol. xii., art. India (Sir 

W. W. Hunter). 
Frazer, R. W., British Rule in India. G. P. Putnam's 

Sons, New York, $1.50. 
Hodgson, B. H., Aborigines of India. Williams & 

Norgate, London, 9s. 
Hunter, Sir W. W., Brief History of the. Indian Peo 

pie's. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 90c. 

net. 
, England's Work in India. Smith & Elder 

London, Is. 
, The Indian Empire. 2 vols. Charles Scrib 

ner's Sons, New York, $11.20, net. 
Kaye and Malleson, History of the Indian Mutiny 

Allen & Co., London, 6 vols., £1. 16s. 

255 



256 Appendix B 

Keene, H. G., The Fall of the Moghul Empire. Allen 

& Co., London, 10s. 6d. 
Mcfarlane, C, History of British India. Routledge, 

London. 3s. 6d. 
Malcolm, J., Political History of India. Murray, Lon- 
don, 2 vols., £1. 12s. 
Malleson, G. B., The Decisive Battles of India. Allen 

& Co., London, 7s. 6d. 
Saville, B. W., How India Was Won. Hodder & 

Shoughton, London, 5s. 
Seeley, The Expansion of England. Little, Brown & 

Co., Boston, $1,75. 
Wheeler, J. Talboys, Short History of India. Mac- 

millan & Co., New York, $3.50. 



RELIGIONS 

Ballantyue, James R., Christianity Compared with 

Hindu Philosophy. Madden, London, 8s. 6d. 
Barrows, J. H., World's Parliament of Religions. 

George M. Hill & Co., New York. 2 vols., $5. 
Barth, Religions of India. Triibner, London. 2d 

edition, 16s. 
Bose, R. C, Brahmoism; or. History of Reformed 

Hinduism, Funk & Wagnalls Co., New York, 

?1.25. 
Burrell, D. J., The Religions of the World. Pres., 

Book Publ., Philadelphia, $1.25. 
Davids, T. W. Rhys., Buddhist India. G. P. Putnam's 

Sons, New York, $1.35, net. 
Ellinwood, F. F., Oriental Religions and Christianity. 

Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, $1.75. 
Grant, G. M., The Religions of the World in Rela- 
tion to Christianity. F. H. Revell Co., New 

York. 40c. 



Appendix B 257 

Hall, Charles Cuthbert, Christian Belief Interpreted 
by Christian Experience. F. H. Revell Co., New 
York, $1.50. 

Hall, Charles Cuthbert, The Universal Elements of 
the Christian Religion. F. H. Revell Co., New- 
York, 11.25. 

Hopkins, Edward Washburn, The Religions of India. 
Ginn & Co., Boston, $2. 

Howard, E., Studies in Non-Christian Religions. So- 
ciety for the Propagation of Christian Knowl- 
edge, London, 2s. 6d. 

Islam and Christianity; or. The Koran and the Bible. 
By a missionary. American Tract Society, New 
York, $1. 

Jones, J. P., India's Problem: Krishna or Christ. 
F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.50. 

Kellogg, S. H., A Handbook of Comparative Religions. 
Student Volunteer Movement, New York, 75c. 

Leigh, H, S., Religions of the World. Triibner, Lon- 
don, 2s. 6d. 

Menzies, Allan, History of Religion. Charles Scrib- 
ner's Sons, New York, $1.50. 

Mitchell, J. Murray, The Great Religions of India. 
F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.50. 

Mitchell, J. M., Hinduism Past and Present. Re- 
ligious Tract Society, London, 4s. 

Miiller, F. Max, Origin and Growth of Religion. 
Smith & Elder, London, 9s. 

Miiller, F. Max, Origin and Growth of Religion. 
Longmans, Green & Co., London, 10s. 6d. 

, Natural Religions. Longmans, Green & 

Co., New York, $1.75. 

Non-Christian Religions of the World. Religious 
Tract Society, London, 2s. 6d. 



258 Appendix B 

Non-Christian Religious Systems: Hinduism. So- 
ciety for the Propagation of Christian Knowl- 
eldge, London, 2s. 6d. 

Padfield, Rev. J. E., Hindu at Home. Simpkin, Lon- 
don, 3s. 6d. 

Religions of Missions Fields as Viewed by Protestant 
Misionaries. Student Volunteer Movement, Nev/ 
York, 50c. 

Religious Systems of the World. E. P. Button & Co., 
New York, $2.50. 

Sen, Keshub Chunder, The Brahmo-Samaj. Allen & 
Co., London, 2s. 

Shedd, William Ambrose, Islam and The Oriental 
Churches. Pres. Board of Publication, Phila- 
delphia, ?1.25, net. 

Thornton, D. M., Parsi, Jain, and Sikh. Religious 
Tract Society, London, 2s. 

Vaughan, J., The Trident, the Cresent and the Cross 
Longmans, Green & Co., London, 9s. 6d. 

Wilkins, W. J., Modern Hinduism. T. Fisher Unwin 
London, 16s. 

Vv'illiams, Sir W. Monier, Hinduism. E. S. Gorham 
New York, 75c. 

Williams, Sir W. Monier, Brahmanism and Hindu 
ism. Macmillan & Co., New York, $3.50. 

Zwemer, S. M., The Moslem Doctrine of God. Ameri 
can Tract Society, New York, 45c. 



GENERAL 

Allen, V/illiam O. B., and McClure, Edmund, Two 
Hundred Years. Society for the Propagation of 
Christian Knowledge, London, 10s, 6d. 

Barnes, Irene, H., Behind the Pardah. Marshall 
Bros., London, 3s. 6d, 



Appendix B 259 

Barrett, R. N., The Child of the Ganges. F. H. Revell 
Co., New York, $1. 

Beach, H. P., India and Christian Opportunity. Stu- 
dent Volunteer Movement, New York. 50c. 

Bose, Ram Chandra, Hindoos as They Are. Stand- 
ford, London, 7s. 6d. 

Bunker, Alonzo, Soo Thah. F. H. Revell Co., New 
York, n- 

Butler, W., The Land of the Veda. Eaton & Mains, 
New York, $2. 

Carmichael, Amy Wilson, Things As They Are: Mis- 
sion Work in Southern India. F. H. Revell Co., 
New York, $1. 

Chamberlain, Jacob, in the Tiger Jungle. F. H. 
Revell Co., New York, $1. 

Chamberlain, Jacob, The Cobra's Den. F. H. Revell 
Co., New York, |1. 

Clark, R., The Missions in the Punjab and Sindh. 
Church Missionary Society, London, 3s. lOd. 

Clough, E. R., While Sewing Sandals: Tales of a 
Telugu Pariah Tribe. F. H. Revell Co., New 
York, $1.50. 

Cochrane, Henry Park, Among the Burmans. F. H. 
Revell Co., New York, $1.25. 

Compton, Herbert, Indian Life in Town and Country. 
G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, $2.25. 

Crook, W., Northwest Provinces of India. Methuen 
& Co., London, 10s. 6d. 

Curtis, William Eleroy, Modern India. F. H. Revell 
Co., New York, $2. 

Denning, M. B., Mosaics from India. F. H. Revell 
Co., New York, $1.25. 

Decennial Missionary Conference, Report of the 
Third, held in Bombay. 2 vols., $4, net. 



260 Appendix B 

Decennial Missionary Conference, Report of the 
Fourth, Madras, 1902. Christian Literature So- 
ciety, London. 

Donning, David, The History of the Telugu Mission. 
American Baptist Publication Society, Phila- 
delphia, 75c. 

Duff, Dr. Alexander, India and Indian Missions. 
Groombridge, Edinburgh, 12s. 

Fuller, M. B., The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood. 
F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25. 

Gordon, A., Our India Missions. United Presbyterian 
Board of Publication, Pittsburg, Pa., $1.50, net. 

Griffin, Z. F., India and Daily Life in Bengal. Morn- 
ing Star Publishing House, Boston, $1. 

Guinness, Lucy E., Across India at the Dawn of the 
Twentieth Century. F. H. Revell Co., New York, 
$1.50. 

Guinness, Lucy E., New Year's Eve, 1900: An Indian 
Dream. Marshall Bros., London, 2s. 

Harband, Beatrice M., Daughters of Darkness in 
Sunny India. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1. 

Harband, Beatrice M., Pen of Brahma. F. H. Revell 
Co., New York, $1.25, net. 

Harband, Beatrice M., Under the Shadow of Durgam- 
ma. 

Hewlett, Miss S. S., Daughters of the King. Nisbet, 
London, 5s. 

Hopkins S., Armstrong, Within the Purdah. Eaton 
& Mams, New York, $1.25. 

Hume, Robert A., Missions from the Modern View. 
F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25. 

Humphrey, J. L., Twenty-one Years in India. Eaton 
& Mains, New York, $1. 

Hunter, R., History of Missions of Free Church of 
Scotland in India and Africa. Nelson, London, 
3s. 6d. 



Appendix B 261 

Hurst, J. F., Indika. Harper & Bros., New York, 

$3.75. 
Jackson, John, Lepers. Marshall Bros., London, 3s. 

6d. 
Karney, Evelyn S., and Winifrede W. S. Walden, 

The Shining Land. Church of England Zenana 

Missionary Society, London, 6d., net. 
Lilly, W. S., India and Its Problems. E. P. Button 

& Co., New York, $3. 
Lyall, A. C, Asiatic Studies. Charles Scribner's Sons, 

New York, $3.60. 
Mason, Caroline Atwater, The Little Green God. F. 

H. Revell Co., New York, 75c. 
Mason, Caroline Atwater, Lux Christi: An Outline 

Study of India. Macmillan, New York, 90c. 
Mateer, S., The Gospel in South India. Religious 

Tract Society, London, 3s. 6d. 
Maxwell, Ellen Blackmar, The Bishop's Conversion. 

Eaton & Mains, New York, $1.50. 
Mitchell, J. Murray, Once Hindu, now Christian. F. 

H. Revell Co., New York, 75c. 
Pitman, E. R. (Mrs.), Indian Zenana Missions. 

Snow, London, 6d. 
Powell, B. H. Baden, The Origin and Growth of Vil- 
lage Communities in India. Charles Scribner's 

Sons, New York, $1. 
Protestant Missions in Burma and Ceylon: Statis- 
tical Tables. Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta. 
Ramabai, Pandita, The High-Caste Hindu Women. 

F. H. Revell Co., New York, 75c. 
Rice, H., Native Life in South India: Being Sketches 

of the Social and Religious Characteristics of the 

Hindus. Religious Tract Society, London, 2s. 6d. 
Rowe, A. D., Every-Day Life in India. American 

Tract Society, New York, $1.50. 



262 Appendix B 

Russell, Norman, Village Work in India. F. H. Revell 
Co., New York, $1, net. 

St. Clair-Tisdall, W., India. Student Volunteer 
Missionary Union, London, Is. 6d. 

Scott, J. E., In Famine Land. Harper & Bros., New 
York, $2.50, net. 

Scott, T. J., Missionary Life Among the Villages in 
India. Eaton & Mains, New York, $1.75. 

Sherring, M. A., History of Protestant Missions in 
India. Religious Tract Society, London, 6s. 

Smith, George, Conversion of India. F. H. Revell 
Co., New York, $1.50. 

Stewart, R., Life and Work in India. Pearl Pub. Co., 
Philadelphia. 

Stevens, G. W., In India. Dodd, Mead & Co., New 
York, $1.50. 

Stock, Eugene, History of the Church Missionary So- 
ciety. Church Missionary Society. 12s. 6d. 

Storrow, E., Our Sisters in India. F. H. Revell Co., 
New York, $1.25. 

Stover, W. B., India a Problem. Brethren Publishing 
House, Elgin, 111., $1.25. 

Temple, Sir Richard, India in 1880. 2 vols., Allen & 
Co., London, 16s. 

Temple, Sir Richard, A Bird's-Eye View of Pictur- 
esque India. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $2. 

Thoburn, J. M., India and Malaysia. Eaton & Mains, 
New York. $1.50. 

Thoburn, J. M., Light in the East. Eaton & Mains, 
New York, 50c. 

Various Authors, Empire Builders. Church Mission- 
ary Society. London, Is. 6d. 

Wilder, Robert P., Among India's Students. F. H. 
Revell Co., New York, 30c. 

Williams, Sir M. Monier, Modern India and the In- 
dians. Triibner, London, 14s. 



Appendix B 263 

BIOGRAPHICAL 

Birks, Rev. Herbert, Bishop T. V. French. Murray, 

London, 30s. 
Butler, Clementina, William Butler. Eaton & Mains, 

New York, $1. 
Carus-Wilson, Mrs. Ashley, Irene Petrie, A Woman's 

Life for Kashmir. F. H. Revell Co., New York, 

$1.50. 
Dyer, Helen S., Pandita Ramabai: The Story of Her 

Life. F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25. 
Elmslie, Mrs., William Jackson Elraslie, Memoir, 

Seedtime in Kashmir. Nisbet, London, Is. 
Farwell, Mary E., William Carey. F. H. Revell Co., 

Nev/ York, 30c., net. 
Fox, Rev. G. T., Rev. Henry Watson Fox. New 

Edition. Religious Tract Societj', London, 3s. 6d. 
Gracey, Mrs. J. T., Eminent Missionary Women. 

Eaton & Mains, New York, 85c. 
Grey-Edwards, Rev. A, H., Memoir of Rev. John 

Thomas (of Tinnevelli), Elliot Stock, 5s. 
Holcomb, Helen H., Men of Might in India Missions. 

F. H. Revell Co., New York, $1.25. 
Jackson, J., Mary Reed, Missionary to the Lepers. 

F. H. Revell Co., New York, 75c. 
Johnston, Julia H., Adoniram Judson. F. H. Revell 

Co., New York, 30c. 
Judson, Edward, Adoniram Judson. American Bap- 
tist Publishing Society, Philadelphia, $1.25. 
Lewis. Rev. A., G. M. Gordon, "The Pilgrim Mission- 
ary of the Punjab." Church Missionary Society. 

2s. 6d. 
Messmore, J. H., The Life of Edwin Wallace Parker, 

Eaton & Mains, New York, $1. 
Montefiore, Arthur, Reginald Heber. F. H. Revell 

Co., New York, 75c. 



264 Appendix B 

Myers, Rev. John B., William Carey, the Shoemaker 
who Became "The Father and Founder of For- 
eign Missions." F. H. Revell Co., New York, 75c. 

Rhea, Mrs. Sarah J., Henry Martyn. F. H. Revell 
Co., New York. 30c. 

Sargent, Rev. John, Henry Martyn. New edition. 
Seeley, London, 2s. 6d. 

Smith, G., Bishop R. Heber. John Murray, Lon- 
don, 10s. 6d. 

Smith, G., Henry Martyn, Saint and Scholar. F. H. 
Revell Co., New York, $3. 

Smith, George. Twelve Indian Statesmen. Thomas 
Nelson & Sons, New York, $3.50. 

Smith, George, Twelve Pioneer Missionaries. 
Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York, $3.50. 

Smith, G., William Carey. John Murray, London, 
7s. 6d. 

Smith, G., Alexander Duff. Hodder & Stoughton, 
London, 6s. 

Smith, G., John Wilson: Philanthropist. John Mur- 
ray, London, 9s. 

Thohurn, J. M., Life of Isabella Thoburn. Eaton & 
Mains, New York, $1.25. 

Vermilye, Elizabeth B., Alexander Duff. F. H. Re- 
vell Co., New York, 30c. 



Appendix C 265 



APPEXDIX C 



RULES FOR PROXUXCIATIOX 



Vowels and Dip 


iithongs 






a ha3 the 


sound of v. 


in 


fun 


a " 


(( 


" 


" a 


in 


father 


e " 


(( 


« 


" e 


in 


they 


i " 


(( 


(( 


" i 


in 


pin 


I " 


" 


" 


" i 


in 


machine 


'• 






'• 


in 


note 


u " 


" 


" 


" u 


in 


pull 


u » 


u 


'' 


'• u 


in 


rule 


ai " 


(( 


(( 


'• t 


in 


file 


au '^ 


(( 


" 


" 02ff 


in 


owl 



Consonants 
k, kh has the sound of cA in loch in Scotch and Buch in German 
t has the sound of t in toy 
d has the sound of d in day 

t has a peculiar th sound — half-wav between the English t in 

toy and th in this 
n is nasal 
r is a slurred r as r in French words 



26G 



Appendix D 



APPENDIX D 

GLOSSARY 



Mother! (vocative case). A is 
in up. The word is also used by 



A list of words, with pronunciation and definition, found in books 

on India. In some cases the pronunciation is omitted because 

the English is the same as the Indian. 

Agni Ag-nl God of fire 

Ai-yO Alas! ^i runs together almost like 

eye. The word is repeated rapidly. Eye-eye Yo Eye- 
eye- Yo ! 
A-min Head of district. 

Am ma Am-ma 

pronounced like 
all women in speaking to each other, and by girls in speak- 
ing to women. 

Lady or woman. A is pronounced 
like u in up. 

Two cents. 

Nut eaten by the Indians with 
betel leaf or lime. 

Nurse. 

English-speaking native gentleman. 

Hymn. 

Fee, gratuity. 

A bullock cart. 

Street in which are shops. 

A Mohammedan princess. 

Water carrier. 

Wife. 

Indian nightingale. 

European residence. 

Sweepers ; the lowest caste. 

Shopkeeper or storekeeper. 

Leaf of a creeper. 



Aiyo 



Amin 



Ammal Am-mal 

Anna 
Areca Nut 

Ayah A-yah 
Babu Ba-bu 
Bajjan Bh4-jan 
Bakshish Bak-shish 
Bandy 

Bazar Ba-zar 
Begum Be-gam 
Bhisti Bhish-tl 
Bibi Bl-bl 
Bulbul Bul-bul 
Bungalow 
Bunghis Bang-hi 
Bunnia Ban-ni-a 
Betel 



Appendix D 



267 



Brahma Brah-ma The first person in the Hindu Triad, 

regarded as the Creator. 
Brahman Brali-man The highest of the Hindu castes. 

Bramo Samaj Brah-mo Sa-maj A sect of Hindu reformers 
who honor Christ as a man, but who reject him as a 
Saviour. 

Leather workers. 

Attendant, messenger. 

Portable bedstead. 

Exclamation of derision, disgust, or 
remonstrance. 

Disciple. 

Pipe. 

Written testimonial or message. 

Unleavened bread, universal] j used. 

Muslin covering for the head. 

A piece of ground surrounding a 
house. 

A paid laborer. Coolie is the Tamil 



Chamars Cha-mars 
Chaprassi Chap-ras-sl 
Charpoy Char-pa-i 
Chee Chi 

€hela Che-la 
Cbilam Chi-lam 
Chit Chit 
Chopatti Cha-pat-tl 
Chuddar Chad-dar 
Compound 



Coolie 

word for pay. 
Crore Ka-ror 

Curry 



Ten millions. 

A preparation of meat or vegetables 

made by grinding various condiments and mixing them 

together. 
Dak Dak The post, the relay of men. 

Dandy Conveyance carried by coolies. 

Dervish Mohammedan fanatic. 

Deva De-va God. 

Dhobi Dho-bl Washerman. 

Diwan or Divan A council. 

Durbar or Darbar Court reception. 

Fakeer Fa-klr Religious beggar. 

Ganesa or Ganesha Gan-esh The god of wisdom. 
Garri Gar-rl A carriage. 



268 



Appendix D 



Ghat Ghat A quay or flight of steps leading to 

the water. Also a steep mountain side. 
Ghee Ghl Clarified butter. 

Guru Gu-ru Religious teacher. 

Hadji Ha-jl A Mohammedan gentleman who has 

made the pilgrimage to Mecca. 



Physician. 

Monkey god. 

Seat used for riding elephants. 

Title given to Brahmans and Gurus. 

A goddess, the wife of Shiva. 

The law of consequences. Bud- 



Hakim Ha-kim 

Hanuman Han-u-man 

Howdah 

Iyer 

Kali Ka-li 

Karma Kar-ma 
dhistic. 

Khitmutgar Khid-mat-gar A servant or butler, usually Mo- 
hammedan. 

Kismet Kismat Destiny. 

Kowree Kau-rl A small white shell used for money 

among the poorest people. 



Krishna Krishna 
Lakh Lakh 
Lama La-ma 
Lascar 
Lat Lat 
Lota L6-ta 
Madrissah Mad-ris-sah 
Maha Ma-ha 
Mahadeva Ma-ha-de-va 
Mahajan Ma-ha-Jan 
Mahatma Ma-hat-ma 
Maidan Mai-dan 
Mela Me-la 
Memsahib Mem-sa-hib 
Moulvie M61-vi 



An incarnation of Vishnu. 

100,000. 

A celibate priest (Buddhist). 

Servant in charge of tents. 

Monolithic column. 

Metal cooking utensil. 

School. 

Used in composition, meaning great. 

Great God, used in Shiva. 

Money lender. 

An adept of the first order. 

Plain. 

A fair. 

Lady. 

Native Mohammedan teacher. 



Appendix D 



369 



Munshi Mim-shi 

Musjid Mas-jid 

Xawab Na-wab 

Xin-ana Xir-van-a 
Paddy 



Teacher. 

Mosque. 

Mohammedan chief. 

Obliviou. 

Rice in the husk. 



Padre Sahib Pad-ri Sa-hib Clergyman or missionary 
Pan Piin The leaf which encloses the beteln. 

Pani Pa-ni Water. 

Patel Pa-tel Head man. 

Pathan Pat-han A mixed tribe on the boundary 

between Afghanistan and Hindustan. 



Head of the Mahratta dynasty 
Small copper coin, one-half cent. 
Town, used as a terminal, as Jeypoor. 
Worship. u is pronounced like 

Firm, strong. 

A learned man. 

Feminine of pundit. 

A swinging fan. 

A curtain. 

Prince or sovereign. 

A prince or king. 

Queeu. 

About thirty-three cents. 

Peasant. 

An ascetic. 

Sir, lord. 

A worshiper of Siva. 

A salutation meaning peace used 
in greeting and farewell, and often in the sense of thank 
you. The right hand is raised to the forehead as one 
savs salaam. 



Peshwa Pesh-wa 
Pice 

Poor Puv 
Pujah Pu-jah 

00. 

Pukka Pak-ka 

Pundit or Pandit Pan-dit 

Pundita Pan-di-ta 

Punkah Pank-ha 

Purdah Par-dah 

Rajah Ra-jah 

Rana Ra-na 

Rani Ra-ni 

Rupee Ru-pl 

Ryot 

Saddhu Sild-dhu 

Sahib Sa-hib 

Saivite 

Salaam Sa-lam 



270 



Appendix D 



Sari Sa-rl 
Seer Sir 

Siiabash Sha-bash 
Shanar Sha-nar 
Shiva or Siva Shiv 
The Destroyer. 

Situra Sit-ta-ra 
Swami Swa-mi 
Tiffin 
Tom-tom 
Tonga 

Tulsi Tul-sl 
rishu Masih Yi-su- Ma- 
Yogi Y6-gi 
Vaishnavite 
Vishnu Vis-nu 
Preserver. 
Zayat Za-yat 
Zemindar Zi-min-dar. 
Zenana Za-na-ua 



Woman's garment. 

Not quite two pounds. 

Well done. 

A caste of Palmyra-palm olimbers. 

The third person in the Hindu Triad. 

A musical instrument. 
Religious teacher. 
Lunch. 

An Indian drum. 
A light, two-wheeled vehicle. 
Sacred plant, 
sih Jesus. 

Hindu fanatic or ascetic. 
A worshiper of Vishnu. 
The second person in the Triad. The 

Wayside chapel. 

Hereditary occupier of the soil. 

Apartments of ladies of rank. 







Appzndix 


E. 


Statistics of Protestant I 




— ■ , , 










1 

a 

i 


o 


Foreign Miss'ks 
Inc. Physicians 


1 


Stations 


Native C 
stituenct 




c 
1 

o 


c 

1 



1 

a, > 


>> 
1 

11 
0^ 


II 


u 
. 

i| 

0!» 


1 

a 

a 

i 








1905 
1905 
1905 
1904 
1905 
'03-' 04 
1902 
1905 
1902 
1904 
1902 
1904 
1904 
1902 
1905 

1904 
1904 
1904 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1904 
•04-'05 
1905 


1892 
1798 
1892 
1869 
1892 
1894 
1880 
1899 
1898 
1820 
1876 
1823 
1841 
1815 
1852 

1864 
1840 
1834 
1877 
1838 
1872 
1866 
1883 
1870 


55 

'8 

4 

2 

210 

6i 
15 

78 

717 

13 
32 

60 
18 
41 

U 

15 

8 

201 

'i 
■3 

4 

1 
9 
2 

1 

i3 
'4 

38 


6 

10 

1 

*4 

'2 

ii 
■3 

162 

*3 

25 
4 

10 
1 
1 
1 
1 

46 

3 

14 
126 

i46 


6 
51 

'i 

'4 
i4 

42 

11 
55 

459 

10 
29 
71 
16 
34 

1 

10 
10 

6 
187 

2 

'i 

■3 
2 

's 

2 
5 

"2 
25 


8 
39 

'6 
4 

66 

1 

58 

6 

28 
102 
748 

6 
12 

9 
13 

1 

'i 
2 
3 

47 

1 

"1 
1 
4 

1 

'2 

3 

24 

1 

'6 
27 

7i 


15 

1.892 

'"4 
"13 

2 305 

12 

1,403 

1,347 

1,720 

330 

14.846 

52 
236 
746 

94 
654 
2 
142 
152 

81 
2,159 

3 

24 
5 

10 

9 

141 

"io 

16 
7 
6 
9 

20 
1.444 

50 

1.754 


7 
29 

1 

'2 

1 

5 

3 

1 

122 

1 

37 

14 

53 

26 

719 

7 
31 
25 
10 
26 

1 
10 

7 

7 
124 

3 

1 
1 
1 
2 
3 

"e 
2 

2 

1 

627 

3 

13 

672 


1 
766 

"'24 

'"2 

'"1 

1 

2.175 

1 

108 

430 

-15 
3,850 

9 

212 

102 

15 

22 

"28 

33 

24 

445 

*"6 
.... 

2 

22 

.... 

4 
2 
1 

1.142 
35 


120 

12,922 
' ■3,153 

■■"13 
14 
37,420 
40 
3,358 
6,403 
5,530 

124"942 

285 

21,208 

9,000 

595 

42,872 

' l",644 

8,676 

848 

85,128 

66 
155 

**"64 
35 
15 
10 

90 

"■646 








i 


American 
American 


n) 




American 






American 






American i 






Board of F 
Board of F 
Board of F 
Board of F 






Scotland 
Parts 


'] 


Board of B 






Board of F 




? 


Board of B 






Christian a 






Christian \ 
Evang. Lu 
Foreign Cb 




28 


Foreign D] 
Foreign M 










Foreign M 
Foreign M: 








1 


General Co 






General Mi 
General M 
Mission Bd 






reklum — 




Mission So 




? 


Missionary 
Mission Be 




'05-'06 

1904 

1900 

1900 

•99-' 00 

•02-'03 

•04-'65 
1905 

•05-' 06 
1900 

1905 
1905 
1905 


1894 

1874 

1875 
1867 
1867 
1890 
18.56 

1893 
1889 

i882 
1885 
1897 
1897 




Peniel Mis 






Pentecost 






Scandmav 






AVoman's 







Woman's 




1 


Total 






Baptist M 


\ 




Baptist Zc 






Bethel Sar 







British an 
Ceylon an 
Christian 







Christian 






Church il 






Church of 
Church of 


3.D.A)i... 


' '1,67.5 


'1 


Edinburgl 






Foreign 11. 
Foreign M 
Foreign M 
F/--ends F 
Industrial 







1461 


418 


1131 


1336 


31.931 


1846 


8.082 


497.965 


65 


'X India ar 


idChm 


tianOpi 


oortui 


litli. 








2 


72 







Appendix E. Statistics of Protestant Rlissions in India. 



NAMES OF SOCIETIES. 



American H"!*' ' (.'^Ji™j^ioners for Foreign Missions ' 

SS "oardofF^^^^^^ 

So ForiE Gen. Council, Evan. Lutli. Churchin N .\.. 

K Foreign Jfeions. Pr«bytoian Church ml.. S. \ 

S of Foreign Missions. Reformed Chnrch m Amenoa 

Board of Foreign Missions, Reformed Kpisoopal Church.. . 
lioaniof For. Missfefornied Pr«, Cli. m N .A. Gc„. .^y„.,,i . . 
Board of Foreign Missions, United Presbyteriau Churcl, ut A . .\ 

Cliriitian and Missionary AUiance' 

Christian Women's Board of Mission!!^ 

Evang. Lutlicran SjTiod of Mi,«!!ouri. Oliio and other bt:iti-s. . . 

Foreign Ciiristi-in Missionary Society 

Fnreign Dpt., International Committee of \ . M. C. A. of X. A . . 
Ffirricn Mission Board, Baptist Con. of Ontario and (Juchoc.. . . 
rnnigii MuB. Board Baptist Con. of the Jiaritime Proyinccs . . 
Idrricn Mission Committee, Prcsliyterian Church in Canada... . 

(liiicral Conference of Free Baptists 

(Iracr.il Hiss, and Tract Com. of the C.er. Baptist Breth. Church 

General Missionary Board, Free Methodist Church of N . A 

Mission Board of the Ccn'l Conference of Mcnnonites of N. A.. 

Mission Society German Evangelical .Synod of N. A 

Mwionary Society of the Methodit^t Episcopal Church 

Mision Board of the Seventh-Day Advcnti.sts 

I'fiiiol Missionary Society 

IViLicmst Bands of the World 

SiMiuliriavi.an Alliance Mission 

ttmrati's General Missionary Socict\- of the Churches of Qni... 

Woman's Union .Miss. Soc. of America for Heathen Lands 

Total, 32 American Societies 

British Societies 

Baptist Missionary Society 

Baptist Zenana Mission 

Bptlicl kintal Mission ' 

i'ntlUi :inil Forcifin liihc S«iiicf\- 



liiircti Missionary Society 

Iiurcli of England Zen.ana Missionary Sncicl v 

Lurch of Scotland Cora for Prop, the Cloy, i,, Fnrcisn Part' 

""■I'lirgh Medical Missionary Society 

"nica .Miss. Com. of the Orig Secession Church of Scotia 

;i rri^n Missinn. Presbyterian Churcli in Ireland ' 

:"ri'i(;ii Mis,sinns Committee Presbyterian Church of Engla 



Industrial Evangclif 






lof Northern India.. 



11,157 
5, 

4,736 
2,616 



20 

1,000 

286,820 



42,773 
' '2,068 



11, 
' '6,912 



122,034 
■ '7',7('i9 



17,094 
2,881 
8,709 



3,745 

" ■ iso 



ilissions in India. 



Educational. 



55,5 
-Bo 





dj 
























<4-l "* 


s 


2" 




II 


so 








5x 


^^ 



o . 



o,a 



St! 
Qo 

2* 



KG 



50 

(9,298 



3 

2,368 



9,000 
3,276 
6,700 



8,528 



97 

254 

620 

8,193 

■■993 
3,160 
1,005 
4,981 

75 
211 



1,919 

"ieo 

20 
10 
19 



700 



3,114 

6,' 



2 110 
884 34,398 




2 

689 

1 

274 

395 

523 

61 

4,885 

13 

271 
181 
26 



31 
522 



509 



lO.e 



250 



29,603 

8,608 

27,041 

3,240 

209,614 

817 

9,661 

12,848 

790 

5.562 

' 1.459 
1,315 
1,436 

33,888 

95 



320 



1,415 
450 



10.720 



231 
5,276 



251 

7 
251 

*676 

212 

181 

1.572 



175 



551 



1,124 



228 



150 

18,863 



200 



10,475 
16.836 
14,590 

79,341 

307 

* 1,906 
406 



1,050 
l'2,i55 



95 



41 
520 
100 



385.747 



374 



34,549 



7,805 



350 



1, 

346,887 



23 



1,400 



2,539 

11 

36 

626 

31 



591 



597 



139! 9,923 



62 



76 

7i 

'4 

"2 

i2 

37 

3 

4 

6 

354 



204,707 
' 7,666 
*24,452 
* 1.249 

I66.363 



63.637 
1.373.755 



19,453 
1.070 

5,772 



26.295 
' *5, 666 



920 
5000 



5,400 
■52.364 



114 



138 



541 



2.008.956 



Appendix F 



273 



APPENDIX F 

Area and Population of British Provinces and Native 
States, 1901 



Province, State, or Agency- 
Provinces 
1 Aimer-Merwara 


Area m 
Square Miles 

. . 2.711 


r Population 
476 912 




3,143 


24.649 


3 \=;sam 


5fi24.'^ 


6,126 343 


4 Baluchistan {Districts and Administered 

Territories) 45.804 


308 246 


5. Bengal 


151,185 


74,744,866 


6 Berar 


17 710 


2,754,016 


7 Bombay {Presidency) 


123,064 

75,gi8 


18,559 561 
i5,?04,677 
3,2/0,9/0 


Sind. . , . . . 


. . 47,066 


Aden 


80 




8. Burma . .... 


. . 236 738 


10 490 624 




86,459 


9,876,646 


10 Coorg 


1,582 


180 607 


11. Madras , 


141.726 


38,209,436 


12. North-West Frontier Province 


16,466 


2,125,480 


13. Punjab , 


97,209 


20,330,339 




107 164 


47.691,782 


Agra 

Oudh 

Tota', Brifsh Territory 


83,fQ8 
23,966 

1.087,204 


34^JS,705 
/2,833-,077 

231,899,507 


States and Agencies 

15. Baluchistan (Agency). 

16. Baroda State 


86,511 
8,099 


502,500 
1,952,692 


17. Bengal States 


38 652 


3 748 544 


18. Bombay States 


65,761 


6,908,648 


19 Central India Agency 


78,772 


8 628 781 


Gwalior State 






20. Central Provinces States 

21 Hyderabad State..... ... 


29 435 

82 698 


1,996,383 
11 141 142 


22 Kashmir State 


80,900 


2.905 578 


23. Madras State 


9,969 


4 188 086 


Cochin State , . 




812,02s 
4,424,398 


Trauancore State 

24. Mysore State 

25. Punjab States , 


29,444 
36,532 


26. Rajputana .Vgency 

27. United Provinces States 


127,541 
5 079 


9.723,301 
802.097 


Total Native States 


679,393 


62 461,549 


Grand Totrn India , 


1.766.597 


294,361,056 



Appendix E. Statistics of Protestant Missions in India. 



NAMES OF SOCIETIES. 



Kurku and Central Indian Hill Mission 

London Missionary Society 

Missionary Pence Association (All Nations Miss' Union) 

Mission to Lepers in India and the East » 

National CouncU Y. M. C. A. . . . 

n^V?.'''*-^'!?"!.''! M«l'0'n« for Christian wimen.: '.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
Oxford Mission to Calcutta • . 

Regions Beyond Missionary Union '.'.'.' 

Representative Church Council, Episcopal Church in Scotiaiid 
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parte 

South Arcot Highways and Hedges Miaion 

United Free Church of Scotland. Foreign Mifflbns .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' '. 

Welsh Calvanutic Methodists' Foreign Mission 

Hcsleyan Methodist Missionary Society ». 

Zenana Bible and Medica Miaion 

Total, 31 British Societies., . ■.■,'.■.■.■.;■. 

r, •!..,• ■ „ Cantinenlal Sodetiea 

mmsh Missionary Society 

Evangelical Lutheran Mission, Leipsig. 

Basal German EvangeUcal Mission Society 

Evangelical National Society " 

Gossner's Mission 

Loventhal Mission 

Minion Institute at Hermannsbiirg ' .' .' 

iS^KKrfSa^t^.*'.'"-^'^-*'^'^'"""^^^ 

Total, 9 Continental Societies 

i> 1 1.XW. , Mf^^ional Sodkies 

Balaghat Mission (to the Gonds).. . . 

Bengal Evangelistic Mission, Gopalgunge' 

Bengah Mission • 

Chinsurah and Hooghly Zenana Miiion'V. '. 

Fureedpore Mission, Incorporated ' 

India Home Mission to the Santals ' 

India Sunday School Mission 

Moraran Missionary Society 

New Zealand Baptist Missionary Society 

Poonaand Indian Village Mission.... 

yueeialand Baptist Foreign Missionary Society" .' 

Ramabai Association* 

Ranaghat Medical Mission * 

Salvation Army 

Victorian Baptist Foreign Mission 

World's Young Women's Christian Association: ! .' ! ! ! [ ! ! ; ' ' ' 
International Medical jind Benevolent Miss. Society (R.D.A) ' 
Total, 17 International Societies 



Grand Total. 



i not received. Statistics taken from Beach, India and 



2 Including Ceylon. 

3 Report.for 1904. 

4 Report taken from Blue Book of Miaaior, 
o Includes men and women. 




274 



Appendix G 



APPENDIX G 
Distribution of Christians by Race and Denomination 



Denomination 



Anglican 

Armenian 

Baptist 

Congregational ist 

Greeii 

Lutheran and Allied 
Denominations 

Metljodist 

Presbyterian 

Quaker 

Roman Catholic 

Romo-Syrian 

SjTian (Jacobite and 
others) 

Salvationist 

Other Denominations 
and those not re- 
turned 



European 

and 

Allied Races 



I ales Fem. 



81.583 

COO 

),198 

215 

495 

953 

4,494 

7,522 

15 

23,635 



1.830 



),181 
385 
910 
206 
90 



1,504 

2,171 

15 

10,329 

3 



Eura.¥ians 



Males Fem 



993 
62 

27 

152 

1,060 

715 

3 

23,156 



Nativ( 



Total 



18,049 17 732 
30 22 



Total 122,596 47,081 44,941 44,310i 1,344, 160 1,320. 153|2,923.241 



1024 

78 
4 

135 

1,360 

724 

1 

22,541 



681 



Males Fem. 1901 



154,544 

6 

110,180 

19,113 

25 

77,111 

35,759 

21,602 

731 

560,168 
163,607 

126,593 
9,766 



64,953 



151,373 

8 

106,735 

18,200 

15 

76,657 

32.730 

21,197 

544 

562,340 

158,976 

122 144 
9,081 



3,153 



453 462 

1,053 

221040 

37,874 

656 

155,455 

76,907 

53,931 

1,309 

1,202,169 

322,586 

248,741 
18 960 



129,098 



* Including 92,644 who described themselves aa Protestants. 



Appendix H 



275 



APPENDIX H 

Distribution of Population According to Religion and 
Education, 1901 

MA.LES 
Total 

Relig-ons Population Illiterate Literate 

ffindu 105,163.432 95,241,156 9 922,276 

Sikh 1,241,543 1,120,023 121,520 

Jain 691,787 366-489 325,298 

Buddhist 4,680,384 2.800,505 1,879,879 

Parai 48,086 11,743 36,343 

Mohammedan 31,843,565 29.91§,414 1,927,151 

Christian 1508.372 1,068,759 439,613 

Animiatic 4.254.030 4,220,804 33,226 

Minor and Unspecified 10.907 6.133 4,774 

Tota Males 149,442106 134,752,026 14,690,080 

FEMALES 

ffindu 101,945,436 101468.049 477,387 

Sikh 950 823 943,708 7,115 

Jain 642 249 630.794 11455 

Buddhist 4,796.368 4 592,738 203,630 

Parsi 45,883 21.214 24,669 

Mohammedan 29,849 144 29.758,085 91.059 

Christian 1.410.843 1.233 809 177.034 

Animistic 4 321,926 4,319 958 1,968 

Mmor and Unspecified 10 128 8104 2,024 

Total Females 143 972 809 142,976,459 996,341 

Total Population 293 414,906 277,728 485 15,686,421 

1 Literacy was not recorded in the case of 946,150 persons (509.718 males 
and 436.432 females). 



276 Appendix I 



APPENDIX I 

Some of the Principal Occupations Upon "Which Per- 
sons Depend for a Living 

Agriculture 191,691,731 

General Laborers 16,941,026 

Textile Fabrics and Dress 11,214,158 

Mendicants (non-religious) 4,222,241 

Leather, hides and liorns 3,241,935 

Priests and others engaged in R,eligion 2,728.812 

Barbers and Shampooers 2,331 598 

Grain and Pulse Dealers 2,264,481 

Shoe, Boot and Sandal Makers 1,957,291 

Grocers and General Condiment Dealers 1 587 255 

Construction of Buildings 1 579.760 

Sweepers and Scavengers 1,518,422 

Fishermen and F sh Curers 1,280.358 

Fish Dealers 1,269,435 

Bankers and Money Lenders, etc 1 200,998 

Tailors, Milliners Dressmakers and Darners 1,142, 153 

Vegetable and Fruit Sellers 862 428 

Inde6nite and disreputable occupations 737,033 

Sweetmeat Makers and Sellers 603,741 

Actors S ngers. Dancers, Bandmasters, Players, etc 562,055 

Medical Practitioners, Midwives. etc 520,044 

Railway Servants. 503,993 

Teachers, Professors and others engaged in education 497 509 

Butchers and Slaughterers 345,933 

Barristers and others engaged in Law 279,646 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Abdul Masih, 147 

Aborigines, 32,33,91 ; home life, 
73; in college at Madura, 
178; tribes of, 96 

Administration, see British 
administration in India 

Afghanistan, 4 

Afghans, 37 

Africa, 8, 53, 207; East, 234 

Age of Consent Bill, 75 

Agra, 46, 143; Akbar's for- 
tress near, 37 

Agriculture, improvements by 
Carey, 143 

Alimad, Sir Sai3ad, 104 

Akbar the Great 36, 37 

Alaska, 53 

Albuquerque, 38 

Alexander the Great. 34 

Allahabad, 67 

Alphabets, early in India, 108 

Ameer of Afghanistan, 4 

America, 38, 39, 156, see also 
North America, United States 

American Baptist Missionary 
Union, 145, 150, 172, 173 

American Board of Commis- 
sioners for Foreign Missions, 
145, 149, 157 

American College at Madura, 
178 

Americans, 23 

Amritsar, 34 

Anam, 4 

Andaman Islanders, 64 

Anderson, John, 158 

Animists, 91, 93, 96 

Arabia, 93, 148, 234 

Arabian Sea, 4 

Arabic language, 146; Xew 
Testament, 147, 148 



Architecture of the Moguls, 37, 
106 

Arcot, 41 

Area of India, 1 ; cultiyable 
and cultivated, 17 

Arizona, 3, 12 

Armenian cemetery, Tocat, 149 

Army, 1, 2 

Arts and sciences and their 
schools, 67, 143 

Aryans, invasion by, 1, 33, 34 ; 
originally not idol worship- 
ers, 108; race of, 1, 32, 53, 
54, 61, 62; type of, 64 

Arva-samaj, 240 

Asia, 1, 3, 4, 9, 13, 33, 98, 234, 
236 

Assam, 1, 4, 6, 11, 46, 62, 92, 96 

Asylums, 185 

Baber, 36 

Bactria, 34, 35 

Bailey, Benjamin, 158 

Bakarganj, 11 

Baluchistan, 3, 4, 11, 93 

Bananas, 15 

Banerjea, Krishna Mohun, 
155, 232 

Banerji, Babu, S. N., 50 

Banyan trees, 16, 31 

Baptist churches, 145, 153; 
Karen Mission, 240 ; Mission 
Press at Calcutta, 179; 
missionaries at Serampur, 
149; Missionary Society in 
England, 140; in America, 
see Atnerican Baptist Mis- 
sionary Union; Young Peo- 
ple's Union, 194 

Bareilly, 184 

Baroda State, 46 



279 



280 



Index 



Basel Evangelical Mission, 189 

Bazaar, the, 169 

Beggars or devotees, 71 

Behar, 34, 46 

Belgium, 3 

Benares, 19, 34 

Bengal, 8, 12, 23, 46, 47, 92, 93, 
96, 143; Bay of, 5, 7; delta 
of, 3; Government of, 192; 
Legislative Council, 231 ; 
nawab, 42; viceroy, 41 

Bengali, language, 62 ; oratory 
and periodicals, 65; transla- 
tion into, by Carey, 141-143; 
use in baptizing, 142 

Besant, Mrs., 215 

Bhairava, 114 

Bhils, the, 96 

Bhutan, 143 

Bible, 143, 155, 178, 180; cir- 
culation, 150, 181 ; classes, 
191, 192; Society, 180, 181; 
translation, 136, 141, 142, 
146-152, 226 

Bihari language, 62 

Blavatsky, Madame, 215 

Boardman, George Dana, 159 

Boats, for traffic, 7, 8 

Bombay, 2, 17, 19-21, 41, 46, 
47, 67, 92, 93, 137, 157, 159, 
185 ; Presidency, 185 ; Sam- 
achar (paper), 68 

Book of Common Praver,146 

Books, 142, 143, 179, 186, 226 

Bose, Ram Chandra, 232 

Botany, Carey's help to, 143 

Boundaries of India, 4 

Brahma, 113 

Brahmanism, 97 

Brahmans, 78, 97, 108, 109, 
178, 185, 186, 192, 206 

Brahmaputra River, 6-8, 10; 
valley, 11 

Brahmo-samaj , 239 

Brainerd, David, 146, 149, 158 

Breadfruit, 16 

British administration in India 
2, 48; civilians, 138, 147, 191 ; 
control, 41, 49, 53; East 
India Company, 39-42, 44, 



45, 140; empire, 40, 45 
extension of territory, 41 
42; gain in revenue, 41 
42; governinent in India 
12, 37, 46, 48, 49; officials! 
43-46, 50, 138, 191; para^ 
mount authority, 42, 48 
power to hold India, 47-49 
providential destiny, 51-53 
provinces, 3, 45, 46 ; reforms 
needed, 50; residents, 1, 46 
rulers, 137; schools, 154 
174-177; soldiers, 44, 50 
138, 146, 147, 191 

Brown, David, 157 

Bubonic plague, 13 

Buchanan, Claudius, 157 

Buddha, 99-101, 111 

Buddhism, 61, 72, 91-95, 97- 
103 ; date of its rise, 97; 
Gautama, its founder, 97; 
growth and dechne in India, 
97, 98; its extension as a 
missionary religion, 98; its 
fourth council, 35; north- 
ern and southern sections, 98 ; 
precepts and teachings, 98- 
102; results contrasted with 
Christianity, 102, 103 ; 
strong opposition and in- 
tolerance in Burma toward 
Judson, 150-153 

Burial, 32 

Burma, 1, 4, 5, 7, 11, 14, 16, 46, 
62, 69, 92, 93, 96-98, 143,178; 
emperor's intolerance, 150- 
152; Ko San Ye movement, 
240, 241 

Burmans, 64, 100-102 

Burmese Bible, 150; language, 
150 ;Mission, 149-153 ; women, 
93 

Butler, Dr. William, 159 

Calcutta, 2, 8, 19-21, 42, 96, 
142, 157, 159, 184, 234; 
arrival of missionaries at, 
141, 149, 154; Botanical 
Gardens 16 ; college by Duff, 
154, 156; early era of Euro- 
pean vice, 237, 238 ; Hitavadi 



Index 281 



(paper), 68,\schools, 65, 67, Central Provinces, 46, 92, 96 

192 ; University, 192 Ceylon, 21, 92, 98, 159, 178 

Calicut, 38 Chalmers, Dr., 154 

California, 11, 53 Chandra Gupta, 34 

Cambridge University, 146, Chaplains of East India Com- 

153 pany, 146, 157 

Campbell, Sir Colin, 44 Cherra Punji, 11 

Canada, 3, 53, 155, 218 ^ Chet Ram, 181 

Canals, chiefly for irrigation, Chicago, 231 ; University, 232 

8, 12, 43, 52 Child hie, 49, 72-76 ; marriage, 

Cape of Good Hope, 38 37, 75, 76, 236, 240; widows, 

Carey, WiUiam, 139-146, 154, 75, 76 

157, 161, 174, 179, 234, 237, Children instructed, 143; sac- 
238, 241 ; as pastor of Bap- rifice stopped, 143 
tist church and shoemaker, China, 5, 10, 23, 98, 244; 
139; developed power to Boxer uprising, 44 
master languages, 139; dis- Chinese empire, 4 
courses effect missionary Chins, the, 96 
organization, 140; famous Cholera, 13, 22, 23 
motto,140;goestolndia,141; Christ, 103, 111, 118, 168; as 
Mudnabatty, 141 ; preaching Saviour, 84, 103, 107, 123, 
and Scripture translation, 147, 181, 182; to possess 
141; 142; Serampur and pro- India, 161, 194; 
fessorship, 141-143; work Christian agents, 228; corn- 
covering forty-one years, municants, 228 ; community, 
and influence, 143-146 228; literature, see LzYerar?/ 

Caste, 77-83, 95,97,102,109, wor/b; missionary conquerors 
119, 154; breaking in Chris- of India, 131-164. 
tian schools and by rise to Christianity, 54; contrast with 
positions, 171, 178, 192 , 230, Buddhism, 101, 103; Hindu- 
234; divisions of, 77, 78; ism, 119,123; Mohammedan- 
four classes, 78, 79; names ism, 107 

of castes often misleading. Christians, 91-93; increase in 

81; outcasts or "depressed India, 228 

classes," 79, 80, 203-206; Church buildings erected, 138 

rules, 80, 81, 211; sacrifice Church Missionary Society, 153 

of modesty and even life, 81, Church of England, 232, of 

82; should be dealt with Scotland, 154 

carefully, 202, 203, 211; Churches, of United States 

some advantages and disad- and Canada,53 ; membership, 

advantages, 83, 117, 118,; 218 

thirty-five castes in Ameri- Cities, 2, 3, 18, 23, 31, 68 

can College, Madura, 178; Climate, 19-23 

unites Hindus, but also Clive, Lord, 40-42 

divides, 108 Clothing, 70 

Cawnpur, 44, 147, 148 Clough, John E., 159, 172 

Cedar of Lebanon, 16 Coal, 14 

Celt, the 61 "Coast Mission, the," 136 

Census of British empire, 45 Coast regions, 3, 5, 11, 21, 38 

Central India, 43 ; Agencv, 46, Cochin, 158 

92 ■' Code of Manu, 78, 109 



282 



Index 



Coffee, 17 

Colleges, Christian, in India, 
154, 156, 178, 232; grad- 
uates, 155, 178 

Columbus, Christopher, 38 

Commerce, 14, 38, 39, 48, 53; 
Parsees in, 93 

Congregational Churches, 149; 
Missionary Societies, 145 

Constantinople, 148 

Continental, see European 

Converts, 136-138, 143, 150, 
159,161, 229, 234; advance 
of, 84 ; from among devotees, 
122; from schools and col- 
leges, 155, 178; see also 
Native Christians 

Corrie, Daniel, 157 

Cotton, 17 

Cotton, Sir A., 12 

Croesus, 13 

Cuddalore, 138 

Cultivated area, 17 

Custard apple, 15 

Da Gama, Vasco, 38 

Dalhousie, Lord, 18; achieve- 
ments in India, 43 

Daman, 38 

Danish, raissions, 135-138; 
settlements, 39, 142 

Darjiling, 11 

Day, Samuel S., 159, 172 

Deccan, the, 5, 11, 13, 41, 172 

Decennial Missionary Confer- 
ence, 193 

Delhi, 21,36, 37, 44, 45 

Delta of Bengal or of the 
Ganges and Brahmaputra, 
3, 6 ; of the Irawadi, 5 

Demarara, 234 

Deo or spirit, 110 

Desert, 17 

Devil worshipers, 122 

Devotees, religious, 116, 117, 
119-122 

Diamonds, 13, 14 

Dinapur, 146 

Diseases, 13, 22, 23 

Diu, 38 

Douglass, Francis A., 159 



Dravidian race, 62, 64 

Dravido-Munda people, 32, 62 

Drink traffic, 50 

Drought, 12, 13 

Drysdale, Anne Scott, 154 

Dualism, 94 

Duff, Alexander, 153-156; 159, 
161, 174, 176; father and 
mother, 153; first missionary 
impression, 153 ; marriage 
and voyage to India, 154; 
success and effect of colleges 
at Calcutta and Madras, 
156; vast educative work in 
home fields, 155, 156 

Dupleix, 40, 41 

Durbars, 45 

Durian, the, 16 

Dutch East India Company, 39 

Earthenware, prehistoric, 32 

East India Company, see 
British East India Company 

East India Railway, 192 

East, the, see Orient, the 

Eastern Ghats, 5 

Eastern India, 159 

Ecumenical Missionary Con- 
ference, 232 

Educational work, 49, 50, 52, 
64, 66-68, 93, 107,173-178 
Christ's commission, 173 
instruction needed 173, 174 
modern movement, 143 
154, 157, 159, 174-176 
results show its necessity, 
176-178; type, in college 
at Madura, 178; women 
participating, 175, 176 

Edward VII, King-Emperor, 
244 ; crowned and proclaimed 
emperor of India, 45, 233 

Egypt, 8 

Employment, a problem, 211, 
212 

England, see Great Britain 

English, see British 

English language, 64, 67, 68; 
use in colleges by Duff and 
in government schools, 154 

English-speaking race, 54, 156 



Index 



283 



Epworth League, 194 

Equator, 20 

Europe, 2, 13, 14, 38, 134; 
powers having early settle- 
ments in India, 38-40 

European languages in India, 
62; mode in preaching, 168 

Europeans, 21, 23, 61, 191; 
former vices needing correc- 
tion, 237-239 

Evangelistic work, 168-173 ; 
discourses seated or stand- 
ing, 168; in bazaars and 
melas, 169 ; itinerating among 
villages, 170; open air stere- 
opticon services, 170; pro- 
fessors and evangelistic 
bands from seminaries, 170, 
trained native pastors, 170, 
171 ; women workers in 
homes, 171, 172; years of 
prayer and work bring thous- 
ands among Telugus, 172, 
173 

Evils removed, 49, 236; still to 
be overcome, 50 

Exports, 14, 17 

Fairbank, Samuel B.,* 159 
Fakirs or devotees, 119, 120, 

181 
Famines, 13 
Fatalism, 106, 107, 112 
Fertility of land,_ 17 
Fetichism and similar forms, 

110 
Feudatory states, see Native 

states 
Fevers, 13, 22, 23 
Fiji Islanders, 234 
Financial problem in missions, 

216-219 
Fire, worshiped by Parsees, 94 
Food, 70; products, 14-16; 

revolting as a test by devo- 
tees, 121 
Forests, 16 
Fort Ontario, 40 ; Saint George, 

40 ; Ticonderoga, 40 ; William 

Henrv, 40; 
Fort William College, 142 



Fortress of Gingi, 40 

France, 39, 49 

Eraser, Sir Donald, 192 

Freethinking sect of Moham- 
medans, 104 

French companies, 39 ; depend- 
encies,40 ; efforts in the East, 
39, 40 

Frenchmen, 137 

Fruits, 15, 16 

Ganesha, 115 

Ganges, canal, 43; river, 6-9, 
31 ; valley, 34, 43, 159 

Gangetic plain, 3 

Garos, the, 96 

Gautama, 97, 99, 100 

German company, 39 

Germany, 49 

Ghats, see Eastern Ghats,West- 
ern Ghats 

Giving and support of missions, 
138,142, 145, 147, 155; ability 
great, 218, 219; proportion 
and Christlike motive, 217- 
219 

Godavari River, 7 

God, 12, 103, 107, 119, 139, 
140, 148, 243, 244 

God or gods, in the non-Cliris- 
tian faiths, 94, 96, 105-107, 
110-115, 236; Animism, 96, 
100, 101; Buddhism, 102; 
Hinduism, 110-115, 118, 
119; Mohammedanism, 105, 
106; Parseeism, 94 

Gogra River, 6 

Gold, 13, 32, 53 

Gonds, the, 96 

Governor-General, 46, see also 
Viceroy 

Governors, 46 

Great Britain, 23, 39-57, 139, 
145, 155, 156 

Greece, 244 

Greek invasion, 34, 35 

Greeks, 1, 61 

Guavas, 15 

Gujarat, 11 

Gujarati language, 62 

Gunga Sangor, 143 



284 



Index 



Haidarabad, 41, 46, 92 

Hall, Gordon, 157 

Hanuman, 115 

Harrison, ex-President, 232 

Harvard University, 192 

Hastings, Warren, 42 

Hasseltine, Miss Ann, 149 

Havelock, Sir Henrv, 44 

Health, 20-23 

Heber, Reginald, 157 

Plei gilts of Abraham, 40 

Heine, 31 

Hides, 17 

Hill region, 5 

Himalaya Moimtains, 4-7, 11, 
16,31 

Himalayan range, 4 

Hindi language, 62 

Hindu Kush Mountains, 35 

Hindu civilization, 34; deities 
worshiped by Jains, 95 ; 
kingdoms, 34; marriage and 
home life, 72-74 ; princes, 36 ; 
reconquest of part of India, 
37; rulers, 137; widows, 37, 
231, 236, 240 

Hinduism, 61, 72, 91-98, 108- 
122, 143, 214, 215 ; adherents 
form bulk of Indian people, 
108; early developed among 
Aryans in India, 108; liter- 
ature in the Brahmanic or 
Vedic writings, 108-110; 
seven articles of faith, 110- 
112; ; six philosophical sys- 
tems, 112, 113; triad, Brah- 
ma, Vishnu, Shiva, 113, 114; 
wife of Shiva, Kali, 114, 115; 
wisdom and monkey gods, 
115; worthless tortures and 
low moral tone of devotees, 
115-123 

Hindus, 44, 61, 96, 146,178, 
185, 192, 206, 211 ; relatively 
tolerant and progressive, 66, 
131 

Hindustani language, 146 ; 
New Testament, 146, 147 

Hodson, Thomas, 158 

Hoisington, Henry, 158 



Homes, 69, lack Christian 

ideal, 70 
Hospitals, by Jains for animals 

95; mission, 185, 186, 225 
Hough, James, 158 
Hugh, city, 8; River, 141 
Hyder Ali, 138 

Idaho, 3 

Idolatry and idols, pictures, 
153 ; worship, 95, 96, 106, 108 
240 

Illiteracy, 66, 67, 107 

Imad-ud-din, Rev., 233 

Imports, 14 

Improvements, 43, 48, 49, 235 

Incarnations in Hinduism, 111, 
113, 114 

Independents, missionary 
agency for, 145 

India, accessible to missionary 
effort, 131 ; area, 1 ; army, 1, 
2; boundaries, 4; British 
provinces, 3, 46; Christian 
conquerors, 131-164; cities, 
2, 3; climate, 19-23; com- 
merce, 14; ciiltivated area, 
17; divisions, physical, 4; 
exports and imports, 14, 17; 
famines, 13; food products, 
14-16; forests, 16; free press 
and speech, 131; French 
possessions, 40; fruits, 15, 16; 
government transferred to 
crown, 44, 45 ; improvements 
under Dalhousie, 43; invad- 
ers and rulers, 31-56; irri- 
gation, 9, 12, 43; lack of 
patriotism, 47 ; languages, 
33, 62-64 ; legislative powers, 
2; missionaries from, to 
other places, 234; mission- 
aries to, 133-161 ; missionary 
results, 225-242; monsoons, 
9-11,21; mountains, 5; 

Mutiny, 43 ; name, 1 ; Na- 
tional Missionary Society 
241, 242; native states, 1, 3' 
46, 47; people, 61-87; popul 
lation, 2, 38, 40, 45, 46, 105 j 
Portuguese possessions, Sg' 



Index 



285 



Public Works Department 
43; products, 13-17; races, 
61, 62 ; railroads or railways, 
2, 17-19, 43; rainfall, 11, 12; 
religions, 91-127 ; revenues, 1 ; 
rich country but poor people, 
70, 71 ; rivers, 6-9 ; rulers, 33- 
38, 40-45; seasons, 19-22; 
statistics, see Statistics of In- 
dia; temperature, 19-22; 
towns, 2, 68,; 18; treasures, 
13, 14; viceroy, 1, 45, 46; 
villages, 2, 23, 68, 69, 184; 
wealth, 13; women, 66, 72- 
77, 102, 119, 161, 171, 172; 
see also sections, as Eastern 
India 
Indigo, 17 
Indo-Chinese, 62 
Indoor services, 169 
Indus River, 1, 4, 6, 8, 34 
Industrial work, call for such 
agency 187; difficulties, 187, 
188; improvements, 52; 
requirements and successes, 
188, 189 
Ingalls, Mrs. Murilla B., 161 
Inquisition in India, 134 
Invaders of India, 32-36; 
Aryans, 33, 34; Greeks 34, 
35 ; Mohammedans, 35-38 ; 
settlements and British con- 
trol, 38-54 
Inventiveness, lack of, 65, 66 
Irawadi, delta, 5; River, 5, 7, 

150 
Irrigation, 9, 12 
Islam, see Mohammedanism 
Italy, 49 

Jack-fruit, 16 

Jains, the, 91-95 

Jamalpur, 192 

Java, 234 

Jehlam River, 34 

Jesuit efforts in India, 134, 135 

Jewels and jewelry, 13, 71 

Jewett, Lyman, 159, 172 

Jewett, Mrs., 172 

Jews, 91-93 

Johnston, Robert, 159 



Judaism, 93, 107, 202 

Judson, Adoniram, 149-153, 
161 ; conversion, marriage, 
and departure for India, 
149; doctrinal view and 
church relation changed, 
149, 150; entrance upon 
work in Burma and first 
converts, 150; imprisonment 
at Ava and Oung-pen-la, 151 ; 
Maulmein and the Karens, 
152; missionary motto, 152; 
translation of Bible and 
close of life, 152, 153 

Judson, Ann Hasseltine, bride, 
149, 151 ; devotion to hus- 
band during imprisonment, 
151 ; missionary heroism and 
death, 151, 152 

Jute, 17 

Kachins, the, 96 

Kali, 114, 115 

Kalima, the, of Mohammed- 
anism, 105 

Kanarese, 64 

Kanishka, 35 

Kansas, 15 

Karens, the, 96; mission work 
among, 152, 159, 240, 241 

Karikal, 40 

Karma, under Buddhism, 99 

Kashmir, 35, 61, 92, 93 

Kellogg, Samuel H., 160 

Keshub Chunder Sen, 239 

Kettering, 140 

Khandoba, 77 

Khasis, the, 96 

King of England, appointment 
of governors, 46 

"Kings," sought to be used by 
Xavier, 134 

Kistna River, 7 

Klondyke, the, 53 

Ko San Ye movement, 240 

Ko Thah-bjoi, 232 

Koran, the, 107 

Kshattriyas, 78 

Krishna, 77, 114 

Krishna Pal, 142, 232 



2S6 



Index 



Lahore, 21 

Landholder's rights, 42 

Languages of India, 33, 62-64, 
67, 68 

Legislative powers, 2 

Lemons, 15 

Letters, Carey's influence 
through, 145 

Life, abnormal regard for, 95, 
101, 236 

Limes, 16 

Lisbon, 38 

Literary work and the press, 
137, 150, 157, 159; Christian 
literature presses and agen- 
cies, 179, 180; need, range, 
and value of output, 179- 
182, 226 

I^iterature Society, Christian, 
180 

London, 23, 140; Missionary 
Society 

Loquats, 15 

Lucknow, 19; relief of, 44; 
ruined residency, 44 

Lumber, 17 

Madras, 2, 12, 41, 46, 47, 67, 
92, 93, 96, 137, 138, 147, 156, 

157, 159, 172, 191; Presi- 
dency, 172 

Madura, 158, 172 

Mahabharata, the, 109 

Mahanadi River, 7 

Mahe, 40 

Mahmud, Tuglak King, 36 

Malayalam 64 

Malaysia, 234 

Mango tree and fruits, 15 

Marathas, 37, 159 

Marathi language, 62, 142 

Marriage, 71-76 

Marshman, Joshua, 157 

Martyn, Henry, 145-149, 157, 

158, 161 ; decision for mis- 
sions at Cambridge, 146, 
153 ; duties as chaplain com- 
bined with mission service, 
146, 147; labors at Dinapur 
and Cawnpur, 146, 147; 
journey through Persia and 



death, 148, 149; work as 
translator, influence, 149 

"Mass movements," 210 

Maulmein, 152 

Maya, or illusion, 111 

Mayo, Lord , 18 

Mazabi-Sikhs, 96 

McConaughy, Mr. David, 191 

Mecca, pilgrimage to, 105 

Medical work, 159, 182-186; 
demand for medical aid, 182- 
184; range and worth of this 
ministrv, 185, 186 

Meerut, 36 

Melas, 169 

Merit, Buddhist doctrine of, 
100-102 

Metal age in India, 32 

Military stations, 18 

Millet, 15, 70 

Milton, 31 

Mir Jafar, 42 

Miraj Medical Mission, 185 

Mission press, see Literary 
work 

Mission schools, see Educa- 
tional work, Schools 

Missionaries, 2, 21, 48, 50, 69, 
96, 131, 133- 161, 191, 193, 
214, 233, 235 

Missionary agencies, 54, 167- 
198, see also separate topics, 
as Educational work; giving 
216-219; lectures, 156; pol- 
icy, 215; problems, 201-221; 
professorship, 156; results, 
225-248; Society of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, 
159 

Missions, Protestant, 44, 53, 
144; accessibility of India, 
131; Danish work, 135-138; 
date of modern era, 141 ; 
first century of development, 
139-161, 225-239; possibili- 
ties for the future, 217-219, 
242-245; quickening of the 
home field, 155, 215-219; 
woman's work, 160, 161, 171, 
172, 227 

Mississippi River, 6 



Index 



287 



Mitchell, J. Murray, 157 

Moguls, 36, 42 

Mohammed, 35 

Mohammedan intolerance and 
unprogressive spirit, 66, 107, 
131; rulers, 36-38, 137 

Mohammedanism, 61, 72, 91- 
93, 95, 103-107, 214,215; 
accepted in eastern Bengal, 
38; advanced by power of 
the sword and offer of 
position, 104- conquest and 
rule in India, 35-38, 103, 104; 
dynasties, 36 ; extension now 
not rapid, 104, 105; four 
sects, 104; its dogmatic and 
practical parts, 105, 106; 
marriage and place of 
woman, 72, 73, 107; relative 
benefits and e\'ils, 106, 107; 
sensuality, 106, 107; viewed 
in contrast with Christianitv, 
107 

Mohammedans, 44, 66, 96, 131, 
146, 178, 186, 192, 206,211 

Mongolian type, 64 

Mongols, see Moguls 

Monotheism, 94, 106 

Monsoons, 9-11,21 

Montana, 3 

Montcalm, General, 39, 40 

Moslem, see Mohammedan 

Mosques, Great, 37; Pearl, 37 

Mottoes, missionary, 140, 152 

Moung Nau, 150 

Mountains, 5 

Mudnabatt}'-, 141 

Muhammad Ali, 41 

Mullens, Mrs. H. C, 161 

Murdoch, John, 159 

Mutiny, the, 17,43, 148 ; causes, 

43, 44; outcome and results, 

44, 45, 159 

Mvsore, 14, 138, 158; States, 
46 

Nagas, 107 

Nagas, the, 96 

Naini Tal, 11 

Narbada River, 5, 7 ; valley, 32 

Natal, South Africa, 173," 234 



National Missionary Society of 
India, 241-242 

Native Bible women, 171, 172; 
Christians, 153; churches, 
150, 172, 213; missionary 
societies, 173, 241, 242, 
princes or rulers, 1, 43, 45, 

46, 138, 233; soldiers, 43, 44, 

47, 96; States and Agencies, 
1, 3, 42, 46, 47; testimony 
for British control, 50-52: 
workers, 170-173, 226, 227, 
233 

Nat-sin, 101 
Nats, 100 
Nautch girls, 77 
Nellore, 172 
Nepal, 62, 234 
Nesbit, Robert, 157 
Nestorian Christians, 132 
New Testament, translations, 

141, 142, 146-149 
New York City, 232; State, 11 
Newell, Harriet, 157 
Newell, Samuel, 157 
Nicholson, Gen. John, 44 
Nile River, 6, 8 
Nineteenth century, 43 
Nirvana or Neikban, 98, 100 
Noble, Miss, 215 
North .\merica, 7, 11, 12, 14. 

23, 61, 65, 154; resources of 

Churches, 218 
Northern India, 15, 19, 20, 34, 

69, 92, 137, 160, 181, 230, 

240, 245 
Northwestern India, 11, 34 
Nundy , Rev. Gopinath, 155 

Occident, the, 23, 54 

Official promotion for natives, 

44 
Ohio, 11 
Ongole, 172 
Ontario, 3 
Opium evil, 50 
Oranges, 15 
Orient, the, 23, 31, 38, 135, 144, 

149, 159, 168 
Orissa, 143 
Oriya language, 62 



288 



Index 



Orphanages, 190 

Oudh, 46 

Oung-pen-la prison, 151 

Oxford University, 231 

Pagoda, in Buddhist worship, 
100, 101, Mart3'n'sat Seram- 
pur, 241 

Pali language, 150 

Pancharnas, 79 

Panipat, battle of, 37 

Panjabi language, 62 

Pantheism, 94, 106, 110 

Paper, improved by Carey, 143 

Parsees, 91-94, 185 

Passes of India, 32, 36 

Patna, 8, 146 

Paul, the Apostle, 91, 149, 244 

Peace and progress, 48, 50 

Peking, 44 

People of India, 61-87; caste 
distinctions, 77-83 ; intellec- 
tual gifts, 65; lack of inven- 
tiveness, 65, 66; literacy 
and schools, 66-68 ; physical 
characteristics, 64, 65; rela- 
tive progressiveness, 66 ; ; sex 
regulations, 72-77; sin ex- 
plains plight, 83, 84 

Periodicals, 65, 68, 226 

Persecution, 132, 210 

Persia and Persians, 1, 61, 94, 
148, 234 

Persian language, 146 New 
Testament, 147, 148, 149 

Pettitt, George, 158 

Philanthropic work; famine 
orphanages, 190 ; results, 
190, 191 

Philippine Islands, 234 

Physical divisions of India, 4 

Physicians, lack of, 184 

Pineapples, 15 

Plague, the, 23 

Plains of Northern India, 4 

Plassey, battle of, 40-42 

Plateau, the southern, of India, 
3, 5 

Plutschau, Danish missionary, 
135 



Policy by which India was won, 
40-42; and is held, 47-49 

Political authority relinquished 
by native rulers, 43 

Polygamy, 72-74, 107; a mis- 
sionary problem, 206-210 

Poljrtheism^ 106, 110 

Pondichern, 40 

Poona, 159 

Pope, the, 132, 134 

Population, 2 

Portugal, 38 

Portuguese Christians, 135 ; 
language used, 137; expedi- 
tions and possessions in 
India, 38, 132, 133 

Porus, 34 

Postage, cheaper, 43 

Poverty of masses, 47, 70, 71 

Prayers, 105, 107, 123 

Press, see Literary work 

Princeton University, 192 

Prisons in Burma, 151 

Piivate baptism, 210 

Products, 13-17 

Protestant Christians, 228, see 
also Missions, Protestant, 
Native Christians 

Provinces, British, 2, 45, 46 

Prussia, 39 ^ 

Public opinion, 49 ; office, 50 

Public Works Department, 43 

Punjab, 12, 32-34, 46, 67, 92 

Puranas, the, 109 

Queen Victoria, see Victoria 

Races, 61, 62 

Railroads or railways, 2, 17-19, 

43, 52 
Rains and the rainfall, 11, 12, 

21, 22 
Rajah of Bhurtpur, 147 
Rajasthani language, 62 
Rajputana, 92 
Rajputs, 78 

Ram Chandra, professor, 232 
Ram Mohan Roy, 239 
Ramabai, Pandita, 186, 231 
Ramayana, the, 109 



Index 



289 



Ramazan, Mohammedan fast, 
105 

Rangoon, 20, 150-152 

Red Sea, 43 

Religions of India, 33, 91-127 

Religious freedom and tolera- 
tion, 37, 52, 131 

Results in India missions, 225- 
245; a first half century, 
226 ; a second half century, 
227 ; agencies among women, 
228 ; Christian population 
and community, 228-231 ; 
eminent native converts, 231- 
233; foreign expansion, 233, 
234; literature, 226; obstacle 
of caste lessened, 234, 235 ; 
property, 225 ; reforms, 235- 
239 ; samajes and native mis- 
sion movements, 239-242 ; 
vast opportunity,242-245 

Resurrection, belief of Parsees, 
94 

Revenues, 1, 41, 42 

Rhode Island, 3 

Rice, 14, 17, 70 

Rice, Luther, 149, 150 

Ringletaube, W. T., 157 

Rivers, as fertilizers and high- 
ways, 8, 9; as land-makers, 
9 ; traffic, 7, 8 ; volume, 6, 7 

Roman Catholic Christians, 
92, 228; Church, 132; mis- 
sions, 133-135 

Rome, 244 

"Roof of the world," 3 

Rulers of India, 33-38, 40-45 

Russia, 2, 49 

Sabat, 147 

''Sacred Book" of Buddhism, 

102 
Saint Lawrence River, 6 
Sakti worship, 110 
Salem, Massachusetts, 149 
Sal win River, 152 
Samarkand, 36 
Sanskrit language, 33, 63, 142, 

146 
Sarasvati, Dyanand, 240 
Sathianthan, Mrs., 232 



Satpura range, 5 

Schools, effect of Duff's use of 
English, 154, 174; govern- 
ment, 65-67, 174-177; high, 
192, 206; mission, 50, 143, 
154, 155, 173-178,227 

Schwartz, Christian Friedrich, 
137, 138 

Scudder, John, 158 

Scythians, 35 

Seasons, 19-22 

Seleukos Nikator, 34 

Self-government, a problem, 
213, 214 

Self-support of pastors, 212,213 

Sepoys, 43 

Serampur, 39, 141, 143, 149, 
154, 157, 241 

Sermon on the Mount, 168 

Settlements in India, 38, 39 

Shah Jehan, 37 ; palace of, 37 

Shanghai, 96 

Sheshadri, Rev. Narayan, 233 

Shiah, sect of Mohammedans, 
104 

Shiraz, 148 

Shiva, 113, 114 

Siam, 4, 98 

Sikhs, 91-93, 95, 96 

Silt, 8, 9 

Silver, 13, 32 

Simeon, Rev. Charles, 146, 153 

Sin, a plight of non-Christian 
lands, 84; viewed by fatal- 
ism, 112 

Sindh, Sindhis, 1 

"Sindhus," 1 

Sing, Sir Hanam, 242 

Singapore, 20 

Singh, Miss Lilavati, 232 

Slavs, 61 

Social life elevated, 49 

Soldiers, see Native soldiers 

Sorabji sisters, 231 

Sorghum, 15 

South Country, 5 

Southern India, 13, 16, 19, 20, 
34, 132, 135, 137-139, 156, 
230, 245 

Spaniard, 53 

Spirit of Good and of Evil, 94 



290 



Index 



Spirits, animistic views, 96, 
100, 101 

Starvation, 13, see also Fam- 
ines 

States, feudatory, or native, 
see Native states 

Statistics of India : area, 1 ; 
army, 2 ; beggars or devotees 
71, 122; boats, 8; British 
empire, 45 ; British provinces 
46 ; canals, 12 ; cities. 3 ; culti- 
vated land, 17 ; deaths from 
famine, 13; exports, 17; 
French possessions, 40; mis- 
sions, 225-228 ; Mohammedan 
increase, 105; native states, 
46; population, 2, 38, 40, 45, 
46, 105; Portuguese posses- 
sions, 38; railroads, 18; rain- 
fall, 11; religions, 91, 228; 
river volumes, 6, 7; schools, 
176; Telugu mission, 172; 
taxation, 37, 49; towns, 2; 
villages, 2 

Steam engine, 44, 143 

Stereopticon service, 170 

Stone ages of India, 32 

Subsidized state, 4 

Sub-sudras, 79, 80 

Sudras, 79, 80 

Sunday-school, 194 

Sunnite, sect of Mohammedans, 
104 

Susa, 34 

Sutras, the, 109 

Suttee, 236 

Swain, Clara A., M.D., 184 

Sweden, 39 

Sweepers, 80, 206 

Syrian Christians, 132 

Table-land of central and 
southern India,4, see also 
Deccan, the 

Taj Mahal, 37 

Talaings, the, 100 

Tamerlane, see Timur 

Tamil language, 64, 137; liter- 
ature, 65, 136 

Tanjore, 136, 137 

Tantras, the, 109 



Tapti, 7 

Tartary, 36 

Taxation, 37, 45, 49, 50 

Taylor, William, 159 

Teak, 16 

Telegraph, 43, 44 

Telugu language, first used, 137 ; 

mission, 159, 172, 173 
Temperature, 19-22 
Temple girls, 77 
Teutons, 61 
Thana, 17 

Thoburn, Isabella, 161 
Thomason, Thomas, 157 
Tibet, 5, 6, 7, 92, 98, 234 
Tibeto-Burman people, 32, 62, 

234 
Timur, 36 

TinnevelH, 136, 157, 158 
Tocat, 149 
Tod, William, 158 
Tomb of Akbar at Agra, 37 
Toronto University, 192 
Torture, voluntary, of devotees, 

116, 117, 120-122 
Total abstinence in Orient, 159 
Towns, 2, 68, 184 
Tract Society, 180 
Tracts, 142, 150, 180, 186 
Trade winds, 9 
Traffic, on rivers, 7, 8 
Tranquebar, 39, 135, 137 
Transmigration, 99, 106, 112 
Travancore, 61, 158 
Treasures, 13, 14 
Trichinopoli, 137 
Truthfulness, in Buddhist 

teaching and practice, 102 
Tucker, Charlotte Maria, 161 

United Provinces, 12, 46,47, 93 
United States, 2, 3, 12, 15, 49, 

145, 155, 218 
Universities, government, 67, 

178, 192 

Vaisyas, 79 

Vedas, 53, 95; separate parts 

of, 109 
Vernacular, mission and press, 

68; schools. 146 



Index 



291 



Viceroy of India, 1, 45, 46; 
Legislative Council, 231 

Victoria,Queen, made Empress 
of India, 45 

Villages, 2, 23, 68, 184; person- 
ages in 2, 69; preaching in 
141, 170 

Vinclhya Mountains, 5, 36 

Vishnu, 113 

WahabifSect of Mohammedans, 

104 
Ward, William, 157 
Wealth of India, 13, 71; of 

English-speaking peoples, 

53 
Weapons, early, 32 
Wellesley, Lord, 43 
West Indies, 10 
West, the, see Occident, the 
Western Ghats, 5, 11 
Western India, 38, 157, 159, 

245 
Wheat and flour, 17, 70 
Widow-burning, 37, 76, 77, 

144, 236 
Widows, see Hindu widows 
Wilson, John, 157, 233 
Witchcraft, 96, 106 
Wives, under native religions 

and usages, 72-77, 207-209 
Wolfe, General, 40 
Women converts, 231, 232; 

mission workers, 149-152, 

154-157, 160, 161, 171, 227; 

physicians, 183, 184, 227 



Women of India, 66, 171; as 
affected by the non-Chris- 
tian religions and customs, 
72-77, 102, 119, 207-209, 
236; as reached by mission- 
ary agencies, 161, 171, 172, 
175, 176, 183, 184, 225, 227, 
231 

World's Parliament of Reli- 
gions, 231 

Wrongs abolished, 43, 48, 49, 
143, 235, 236 

Xavier, Francis, 133, 134 

Yale University, 192 

Yanaon, 40 

Yoma ranges, 5 

Young Men's Christian Associ- 
ation, 191-193; 186; fields, 
191; 192; hearty recognition 
and support, 191-193 

Young Men's Hindu Associa- 
tion, 215 

Young People's Society of 
Christian Endeavor, 194 

Young people's work, 193, 194 

Young Women's Christian 
Association, 194 

Zenana, the, 74, 183 
Ziegenbalg, Danish missionary, 

136 
Zoroaster, 94 
Zoroastrianism, 94 



The Forward Mission Study Courses 



'' Anywhere, provided itbe FORW ARD." — Damd Livingstone 



Prepared under the auspices of the 
YOUNG PEOPLE'S MISSIONARY MOVEMENT 

Executive Committee: — Harry Wade Hicks, S. Earl 
Taylor, John W. Wood, F. P. Haggard, T. H. P. Sailer. 



The Forward Mission Study Courses are an outgrowth 
of a conference of leaders in Young People's Mission 
Work, held in New York City, December, 1901. To 
meet the need that was manifested at that conference 
for Mission Study Text-books suitable for young 
people, two of the delegates, Professor Amos R. Wells, 
of the United Society of Christian Endeavor, and Mr. S. 
Earl Taylor, Chairman of the General Missionary Com- 
mittee of the Ep worth League, projected the Forward 
Mission Study Courses. These courses have been 
officially adopted by the Young People's Missionary 
Movement, and are now under the immediate direction 
of the Executive Committee of the Movement, which 
consists of the young people's secretaries, or other 
official representatives of twelve of the leading mis- 
sionary boards of the United States and Canada. 

The aim is to publish a series of text-books covering 
the various home and foreign mission fields, and written 
by leading authorities with special reference to the 
needs of young people. The entire series when com- 
pleted will comprise perhaps as many as twenty text- 



books. A general account will be given of some of the 
smaller countries, such as Japan, Korea, and Turkey ; 
but, for the larger fields, as China, Africa, and India, 
the general account will be supplemented by a series of 
biographies of the principal missionaries connected with 
the country. The various home mission fields will also 
be treated both biographically and historically. 

The following text-books have been published: — 

1. The Price of Africa. (Biographical.) By S. Earl 
Taylor. 

2. into All tllC Worldo A General Survey of Missions. 
By Amos R. Wells. 

3. Princely Men in the Heavenly Kingdom. (Biographical.) 
By Harlan P. Beach, M.A., F.R.G.S. 

4. Cliild Life in Mission Lands. A Course of Study for 
Junior Societies. B}^ Ralph E. Diffendorfer. 

5. Sunrise in tlie Sunrise Kingdom. A Study of Japan. 
By the Rev. John H. De Forest, D.D. 

6. Heroes of tlie Cross in America. Home Missions. (Bio- 
graphical.) By Don O. Shelton. 

7. Daybreak in tlie Darlc Continent. A Study of Africa. 
By Wilson S. Naylor. 

8. Tile Ciiristian Conquest of India. A Study of India. 
By Bishop James M. Thoburn, 

9. Aliens or Americans? A Study of Immigration. By 
Rev. Howard B Grose, Ph. D. 

These books are published, by mutual arrangement 
among the denominational publishing houses, to whom 
all orders should be addressed. They are bound uni- 
formly, and are sold for 50 cents, in cloth, and 35 cents, 
in paper, postage extra. 



Study classes desiring more advanced text-books are 
referred to the admirable series published by the Inter- 



denominational Committee of the Woman's Boards. 
The volumes already published are : — 

Via Christi. A Study of Missions before Carey. By 
Louise Manning Hodgkins. 

Lux Christi. A Study of Missions in India. By Caroline 
Atwater Mason. 

Rex Christas. A Study of Missions in China. By Rev. 
Arthur H. Smith, D.D. 

Dux Ciiristus. A Study of Missions in Japan. By Rev. 
W. E. Griffis, D.D. 

Christus Liberator. A Study of Missions in Africa. By 
Ellen C. Parsons. 

Cliristus Redemptor. A Study of the Island World. By 
Helen Barrett Montgomery. 



POLITICAL MAP OF INDIA SHOWING CHRISTIAN MISSION STATIONS 



NOTE TO COLODRING 
British India, 

Native States 

British Protestant Missions 
Other European Missions 
American Missions 
Roman Catholic Missions 




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>^UG 22 l§Oi 



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